Cancer facts and figures 2016

Cancer Facts
Estimated numbers of new cancer cases for 2016, excluding basal cell and squamous cell skin cancers and in situ carcinomas except urinary bladder.
Estimates are not available for Puerto Rico.
Note: State estimates are offered as a rough guide and should be interpreted with caution. State estimates may not add to US total due to rounding.
Special Section: Cancer in Asian Americans,
Native Hawaiians, and Pacific Islanders
see page 25 Figure 1. Trends in Age-adjusted Cancer Death Rates by Site, Males, US, 1930-2012 Figure 2. Trends in Age-adjusted Cancer Death Rates by Site, Females, US, 1930-2012 Table 1. Estimated Number of New Cancer Cases and Deaths by Sex, US, 2016 Table 2. Estimated Number of New Cases for Selected Cancers by State, US, 2016 Table 3. Estimated Number of Deaths for Selected Cancers by State, US, 2016 Table 4. Incidence Rates for Selected Cancers by State, US, 2008-2012 Table 5. Death Rates for Selected Cancers by State, US, 2008-2012 Figure 3. Leading Sites of New Cancer Cases and Deaths – 2016 Estimates Table 6. Probability (%) of Developing Invasive Cancer during Selected Age Intervals by Sex, US, 2010-2012 Table 7. Trends in 5-year Relative Survival Rates (%) by Race, US, 1975-2011 Table 8. Five-year Relative Survival Rates (%) by Stage at Diagnosis, US, 2005-2011 Figure 4. Number and Percentage (%) of Cancer Deaths Attributable to Cigarette Smoking in 2011, Adults 35 Years and Older Table 9. Incidence and Death Rates for Selected Cancers by Site, Race, and Ethnicity, US, 2008-2012 Figure 5. Geographic Patterns in Lung Cancer Death Rates by State, US, 2008-2012 American Cancer Society Recommendations for the Early Detection of Cancer in Average-risk Asymptomatic People Corporate Center: American Cancer Society Inc. 250 Williams Street, NW, Atlanta, GA 30303-1002 2016, American Cancer Society, Inc. All rights reserved, including the right to reproduce this publication or portions thereof in any form.
For written permission, address the Legal department of the American Cancer Society, 250 Williams Street, NW, Atlanta, GA 30303-1002. This publication attempts to summarize current scientific information about cancer. Except when specified, it does not represent the official policy of the American Cancer Society. Suggested citation: American Cancer Society. Cancer Facts & Figures 2016. Atlanta: American Cancer Society; 2016.
How Many People Alive Today Have
Basic Cancer Facts
Ever Had Cancer?
Nearly 14.5 million Americans with a history of cancer were alive
What Is Cancer?
on January 1, 2014. Some of these individuals were diagnosed recently and undergoing treatment, while most were diagnosed Cancer is a group of diseases characterized by the uncontrolled many years ago with no current evidence of cancer.
growth and spread of abnormal cells. If the spread is not con-trolled, it can result in death. Cancer is caused by external How Many New Cases and Deaths
factors, such as tobacco, infectious organisms, and an unhealthy diet, and internal factors, such as inherited genetic mutations, Are Expected to Occur This Year?
hormones, and immune conditions. These factors may act About 1,685,210 new cancer cases are expected to be diagnosed together or in sequence to cause cancer. Ten or more years often in 2016 (Table 1). This estimate does not include car- pass between exposure to external factors and detectable can- cinoma in situ (noninvasive cancer) of any site except urinary cer. Treatments include surgery, radiation, chemotherapy, bladder, nor does it include basal cell or squamous cell skin can- hormone therapy, immune therapy, and targeted therapy (drugs cers because these are not required to be reported to cancer that interfere specifically with cancer cell growth).
registries. Table 2 () provides estimated new cancer cases in 2016 by state.
Can Cancer Be Prevented?
About 595,690 Americans are expected to die of cancer in 2016, A substantial proportion of cancers could be prevented. All can- which translates to about 1,630 people per day (Table 1, cers caused by tobacco use and heavy alcohol consumption . Cancer is the second most common cause of death in the could be prevented completely. In 2016, about 188,800 of the esti- US, exceeded only by heart disease, and accounts for nearly 1 of mated 595,690 cancer deaths in the US will be caused by cigarette every 4 deaths. Table 3 () provides estimated cancer smoking, according to a recent study by American Cancer Soci- deaths by state in 2016.
ety epidemiologists. In addition, the World Cancer Research Fund estimates that about 20% of all cancers diagnosed in the How Much Progress Has Been Made
US are related to body fatness, physical inactivity, excess alcohol in the Fight against Cancer?
consumption, and/or poor nutrition, and thus could also be pre-vented. Certain cancers are related to infectious agents, such as Trends in cancer death rates are the best measure of progress human papillomavirus (HPV), hepatitis B virus (HBV), hepatitis against cancer. The total cancer death rate rose for most of the C virus (HCV), human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), and Heli- 20th century because of the tobacco epidemic, peaking in 1991 cobacter pylori (H. pylori). Many of these cancers could be avoided at 215 cancer deaths per 100,000 persons. However, from 1991 to by preventing these infections through behavioral changes or 2012, the rate dropped 23% because of reductions in smoking, as vaccination, or by treating the infection. Many of the more than well as improvements in early detection and treatment. This 5 million skin cancer cases that are diagnosed annually could be decline translates into the avoidance of more than 1.7 million prevented by protecting skin from excessive sun exposure and cancer deaths. Death rates are declining for all four of the most not using indoor tanning devices.
common cancer types – lung, colorectal, breast, and prostate (Figure 1, and Figure 2, ).
Screening can prevent colorectal and cervical cancers by allow-ing for the detection and removal of precancerous lesions. Screening also offers the opportunity to detect some cancers Do Cancer Incidence and Death Rates
early, when treatment is less extensive and more likely to be suc- Vary By State?
cessful. Screening is known to help reduce mortality for cancers Tablend 5 ( provide average annual of the breast, colon, rectum, cervix, and lung (among long-term incidence and death rates during 2008 to 2012 for selected cancer and/or heavy smokers). In addition, a heightened awareness of types by state. For some cancers (e.g., lung), there is substantial changes in certain parts of the body, such as the breast, skin, variation by state, whereas for others (e.g., breast), there is less mouth, eyes, or genitalia, may also result in the early detection of variation. For more information about geographic disparities in cancer. For complete cancer screening guidelines, se.
cancer occurrence, see Who Is at Risk of Developing Cancer?
Cancer usually develops in older people; 86% of all cancers in the
United States are diagnosed in people 50 years of age or older.
Cancer Facts & Figures 2016 1
Certain behaviors also increase risk, such as smoking, eating an familial cancers arise from the interplay between common gene unhealthy diet, or not being physically active. Cancer research- variations and lifestyle/environmental risk factors. Only a small ers use the word "risk" in different ways, most commonly proportion of cancers are strongly hereditary, that is, caused by expressing risk as lifetime risk or relative risk. Lifetime risk an inherited genetic alteration that confers a very high risk.
refers to the probability that an individual will develop or die from cancer over the course of a lifetime. In the US, the lifetime What Percentage of People
risk of developing cancer is 42% (1 in 2) in men and 38% (1 in 3) in women (Table 6, ). These probabilities are estimated based on the overall experience of the general population and The 5-year relative survival rate for all cancers diagnosed dur- may overestimate or underestimate individual risk because of ing 2005-2011 was 69%, up from 49% during 1975-1977 (Table 7, differences in exposures (e.g., smoking), family history, and/or ). Improvement in survival reflects both the earlier diagnosis of certain cancers and improvements in treatment. Survival statistics vary greatly by cancer type and stage at diag- Relative risk is a measure of the strength of the relationship nosis (Table 8). between a risk factor and cancer. It compares the risk of develop-ing cancer in people with a certain exposure or trait to the risk in Relative survival is the percentage of people who are alive a des- people who do not have this characteristic. For example, men and ignated time period (usually 5 years) after a cancer diagnosis women who smoke are about 25 times more likely to develop lung divided by the percentage expected to be alive in the absence of cancer than nonsmokers, so their relative risk of lung cancer is cancer based on normal life expectancy. It does not distinguish 25. Most relative risks are not this large. For example, women between patients who have no evidence of cancer and those who who have a mother, sister, or daughter with a history of breast have relapsed or are still in treatment. The 5-year relative sur- cancer are about twice as likely to develop breast cancer as vival rate does not represent the proportion of people who are women who do not have this family history; in other words, their cured because cancer deaths occur beyond 5 years after diagno- relative risk is about 2. For most types of cancer, risk is higher sis. For information about how survival rates were calculated for with a family history of the disease. It is now thought that many this report, see "Sources of Statistics" on Figure 1. Trends in Age-adjusted Cancer Death Rates* by Site, Males, US, 1930-2012
lationopu 60ale p *Per 100,000, age adjusted to the 2000 US standard population. †Mortality rates for pancreatic and liver cancers are increasing.
Note: Due to changes in ICD coding, numerator information has changed over time. Rates for cancers of the liver, lung and bronchus, and colon and rectum are affected by these coding changes.
Source: US Mortality Volumes 1930 to 1959 and US Mortality Data 1960 to 2012, National Center for Health Statistics, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
2016, American Cancer Society, Inc., Surveil ance Research 2 Cancer Facts & Figures 2016
Although relative survival rates provide some indication about staging systems are used to classify cancer. A system of sum- the average survival experience of cancer patients in a given mary staging is used for descriptive and statistical analysis of population, they should be interpreted with caution. First, tumor registry data and is particularly useful for looking at 5-year survival rates do not reflect the most recent advances in trends over time. According to this system, if cancer cells are detection and treatment because they are based on patients who present only in the layer of cells where they developed and have were diagnosed as far back as 10 years. Second, they are not not spread, the stage is in situ. If cancer cells have penetrated equally applicable to all patients because of factors that affect beyond the original layer of tissue, the cancer has become inva- individual survival, such as treatment, other illnesses, and bio- sive and is categorized as local, regional, or distant based on the logical or behavioral differences. Third, improvements in extent of spread. (For a more detailed description of these cate-survival rates over time do not always indicate progress against gories, see the footnotes in Table 8 o.) cancer. For example, increases in average survival time can Clinicians use a different staging system, called TNM, for most occur if screening results in the detection of some indolent can- cancers. The TNM system assesses cancer growth and spread in cers that would have gone undetected in the absence of screening 3 ways: extent of the primary tumor (T), absence or presence of (overdiagnosis). Screening also artificially increases survival regional lymph node involvement (N), and absence or presence rates when early diagnosis does not extend lifespan. of distant metastases (M). Once the T, N, and M categories are determined, a stage of 0, I, II, III, or IV is assigned, with stage 0 How Is Cancer Staged?
being in situ, stage I being early, and stage IV being the most Staging describes the extent or spread of cancer at the time of advanced disease. Some cancers (e.g., lymphoma) have alterna- diagnosis. Proper staging is essential for optimizing therapy and tive staging systems. As the biology of cancer has become better assessing prognosis. A cancer's stage is based on the size or understood, additional tumor-specific features have been incor- extent of the primary tumor and whether it has spread to nearby porated into treatment plans and/or stage for some cancers.
lymph nodes or other areas of the body. A number of different Figure 2. Trends in Age-adjusted Cancer Death Rates* by Site, Females, US, 1930-2012
*Per 100,000, age adjusted to the 2000 US standard population. †Uterus refers to uterine cervix and uterine corpus combined. ‡Mortality rates for pancreatic and liver cancers are increasing.
Note: Due to changes in ICD coding, numerator information has changed over time. Rates for cancers of the liver, lung and bronchus, and colon and rectum are affected by these coding changes.
Source: US Mortality Volumes 1930 to 1959, US Mortality Data 1960 to 2012, National Center for Health Statistics, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
2016, American Cancer Society, Inc., Surveil ance Research Cancer Facts & Figures 2016 3
Table 1. Estimated Number* of New Cancer Cases and Deaths by Sex, US, 2016
Estimated New Cases
Both sexes
Both sexes
Oral cavity & pharynx Other oral cavity Anus, anal canal, & anorectum Liver & intrahepatic bile duct Gallbladder & other biliary Other digestive organs Respiratory system Other respiratory organs Soft tissue (including heart) Skin (excluding basal & squamous) Melanoma of the skin Other nonepithelial skin Vagina & other genital, female Penis & other genital, male Kidney & renal pelvis Ureter & other urinary organs Brain & other nervous system Hodgkin lymphoma Non-Hodgkin lymphoma Acute lymphocytic leukemia Chronic lymphocytic leukemia Acute myeloid leukemia Chronic myeloid leukemia Other leukemia‡ Other & unspecified primary sites‡ *Rounded to the nearest 10; cases exclude basal cell and squamous cell skin cancer and in situ carcinoma except urinary bladder. About 61,000 cases of carcinoma in
situ of the female breast and 68,480 cases of melanoma in situ will be diagnosed in 2016. †Deaths for colon and rectal cancers are combined because a large number of
deaths from rectal cancer are misclassified as colon. ‡More deaths than cases may reflect lack of specificity in recording underlying cause of death on death certificates
and/or an undercount in the case estimate.
Source: Estimated new cases are based on 1998-2012 incidence data reported by the North American Association of Central Cancer Registries (NAACCR). Estimated
deaths are based on 1998-2012 US mortality data, National Center for Health Statistics, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
2016, American Cancer Society, Inc., Surveil ance Research 4 Cancer Facts & Figures 2016
Table 2. Estimated Number* of New Cases for Selected Cancers by State, US, 2016
Melanoma
All sites
Dist. of Columbia 1,685,210 246,660 *Rounded to nearest 10. Excludes basal cell and squamous cell skin cancers and in situ carcinomas except urinary bladder. †Estimate is fewer than 50 cases.
These estimates are offered as a rough guide and should be interpreted with caution. State estimates may not sum to US total due to rounding and exclusion of state
estimates fewer than 50 cases.
Please note: Estimated cases for additional cancer sites by state can be found in Supplemental Data at .
2016, American Cancer Society, Inc., Surveil ance Research Cancer Facts & Figures 2016 5
Table 3. Estimated Number* of Deaths for Selected Cancers by State, US, 2016
All sites
Dist. of Columbia *Rounded to nearest 10. †Estimate is fewer than 50 deaths. ‡Liver includes intrahepatic bile duct.
These estimates are offered as a rough guide and should be interpreted with caution. State estimates may not sum to US total due to rounding and exclusion of state
estimates fewer than 50 deaths.
Please note: Estimated deaths for additional cancer sites by state can be found in Supplemental Data a
2016, American Cancer Society, Inc., Surveil ance Research 6 Cancer Facts & Figures 2016
Table 4. Incidence Rates* for Selected Cancers by State, US, 2008-2012
Non-Hodgkin
All sites
Colon & rectum
Lung & bronchus
Dist. of Columbia *Per 100,000, age adjusted to the 2000 US standard population. † This state's data are not included in US combined rates because they were unavailable or did not meet
high-quality standards for one or more years during 2008-2012 according to the North American Association of Central Cancer Registries (NAACCR). ‡ Rates are based on
incidence data for 2008-2009. § Incidence data not submitted to NAACCR. ¶ Rates are based on incidence data for 2008-2010.
Source: NAACCR, 2015. Data are col ected by cancer registries participating in the National Cancer Institute's SEER program and the Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention's National Program of Cancer Registries.
American Cancer Society, Inc., Surveil ance Research, 2016 Cancer Facts & Figures 2016 7
Table 5. Death Rates* for Selected Cancers by State, US, 2008-2012
Non-Hodgkin
All sites
Colon & rectum
Lung & bronchus
Dist. of Columbia *Per 100,000, age adjusted to the 2000 US standard population. Source: US Mortality Data, National Center for Health Statistics, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
American Cancer Society, Inc., Surveil ance Research, 2016 8 Cancer Facts & Figures 2016
What Are the Costs of Cancer?
Census Bureau, 33 million Americans (10%) were uninsured during the entire 2014 calendar year. This is almost 9 million The Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality estimates that fewer than during 2013 because of the implementation in Janu- the direct medical costs (total of all health care expenditures) ary 2014 of several new provisions of the Affordable Care Act. for cancer in the US in 2013 were $74.8 billion. Forty-four percent The largest increase in health insurance coverage was among of those costs were for hospital outpatient or office-based pro- those with the lowest education and income. Hispanics and vider visits, and 40% were for inpatient hospital stays. These blacks continue to be the most likely to be uninsured, 20% and estimates are based on a set of large-scale surveys of individuals 12%, respectively, compared to 8% of non-Hispanic whites. The and their medical providers called the Medical Expenditure percentage of uninsured ranged from 3% in Massachusetts to Panel Survey (MEPS), the most complete, nationally representa- 19% in Texas. Uninsured patients and those from many ethnic tive data on health care use and expenditures. Visit minority groups are substantially more likely to be diagnosed for more information.
with cancer at a later stage, when treatment is often more exten- Lack of health insurance and other barriers prevent many Amer- sive, more costly, and less successful. To learn more about how icans from receiving optimal health care. According to the US the Affordable Care Act supports the fight against cancer, see "Advocacy" on Selected Cancers
This section provides basic information on risk factors, symp- Less common symptoms include other persistent changes to the toms, early detection, and treatment, as well as statistics on breast, such as thickening, swelling, distortion, tenderness, skin incidence, mortality, and survival, for the most commonly diag- irritation, redness, scaliness, nipple abnormalities, or spontane- nosed cancers. The information primarily applies to the more ous discharge. Breast pain is more likely to be caused by benign common subtypes for each site and may have limited relevance conditions and is not a common symptom of breast cancer.
to rare subtypes.
Risk factors: Potentially modifiable factors associated with
increased breast cancer risk include weight gain after the age of
18 and/or being overweight or obese (for postmenopausal breast New cases: In 2016, invasive breast cancer will be diagnosed in
cancer), use of menopausal hormone therapy (combined estro- about 246,660 women and 2,600 men. An additional 61,000 new gen and progestin), physical inactivity, and alcohol consumption. cases of in situ breast cancer will be diagnosed in women. Breast In addition, recent research indicates that long-term, heavy cancer is the most frequently diagnosed cancer in women (Fig- smoking may also increase breast cancer risk, particularly among women who start smoking before their first pregnancy. The International Agency for Research on Cancer has concluded Incidence trends: From 2003 to 2012, the most recent 10 years
that shift work, particularly at night (i.e., that disrupts sleep pat- for which data are available, breast cancer incidence rates were terns), may be associated with an increased risk of breast cancer.
stable in white women and increased slightly (by 0.3% per year) in black women, resulting in the convergence of rates in blacks Non-modifiable factors associated with increased breast cancer with those in whites.
risk include older age; a personal or family history of breast or ovarian cancer; inherited mutations (genetic alterations) in Deaths: An estimated 40,890 breast cancer deaths (40,450 women,
BRCA1, BRCA2, or other breast cancer susceptibility genes; cer- 440 men) are expected in 2016. Breast cancer ranks second as a tain benign breast conditions (such as atypical hyperplasia); a cause of cancer death in women. history of ductal or lobular carcinoma in situ; high-dose radia- Mortality trends: From 2003 to 2012, breast cancer death rates
tion to the chest at a young age (e.g., for cancer treatment); high decreased by 1.9% per year in white women and by 1.4% per year breast tissue density (the amount of glandular tissue relative to in black women. Overall, breast cancer death rates declined by fatty tissue measured on a mammogram); high bone mineral 36% from 1989 to 2012 due to improvements in early detection density (evaluated during screening for osteoporosis); and type and treatment, translating to the avoidance of approximately 2 diabetes (independent of obesity). Reproductive factors that 249,000 breast cancer deaths.
increase risk include a long menstrual history (menstrual peri-ods that start early and/or end later in life), recent use of oral Signs and symptoms: The most common symptom of breast
contraceptives, never having children, having one's first child cancer is a lump or mass in the breast, which is often painless. after age 30, and high natural levels of sex hormones.
Cancer Facts & Figures 2016 9
Figure 3. Leading Sites of New Cancer Cases and Deaths – 2016 Estimates
Estimated New Cases
Melanoma of the skin Liver & intrahepatic bile duct Non-Hodgkin lymphoma Non-Hodgkin lymphoma Kidney & renal pelvis Melanoma of the skin Oral cavity & pharynx Liver & intrahepatic bile duct Non-Hodgkin lymphoma Non-Hodgkin lymphoma Liver & intrahepatic bile duct Kidney & renal pelvis Brain & other nervous system Brain & other nervous system Estimates are rounded to the nearest 10, and cases exclude basal cell and squamous cell skin cancers and in situ carcinoma except urinary bladder. 2016, American Cancer Society, Inc., Surveil ance Research Factors associated with a decreased risk include breastfeeding at age 30. For more information on breast cancer screening, see for at least one year, regular moderate or vigorous physical activ- the American Cancer Society's screening guidelines o.
ity, and maintaining a healthy body weight. Two medications – Treatment: Taking into account tumor characteristics, includ-
tamoxifen and raloxifene – have been approved to reduce breast ing size and extent of spread, as well as patient preference, cancer risk in women at high risk. Raloxifene appears to have a treatment usually involves either breast-conserving surgery lower risk of certain side effects, but is only approved for use in (surgical removal of the tumor and surrounding tissue) or mas- tectomy (surgical removal of the breast). For early breast cancer Early detection: Mammography is a low-dose x-ray procedure
(without spread to the skin, chest wall, or distant organs), used to detect breast cancer at an early stage. Numerous studies long-term survival is similar for women treated with breast- have shown that early detection with mammography helps save conserving surgery plus radiation therapy and those treated lives and increases treatment options. However, like any screen- with mastectomy. Underarm lymph nodes are usually removed ing tool, mammography is not perfect. For example, it can miss and evaluated during surgery to determine whether the tumor cancers, particularly those in women with very dense breasts, has spread beyond the breast. Women undergoing mastectomy and also detects cancers that would never have caused harm, who elect breast reconstruction have several options, including resulting in some overdiagnoses. Most (95%) of the 10% of women the tissue or materials used to restore breast shape and the tim- who have an abnormal mammogram do not have cancer. For ing of the procedure.
women at average risk of breast cancer, recently updated Ameri- Treatment may also involve radiation therapy, chemotherapy can Cancer Society screening guidelines recommend that those (before or after surgery), hormonal therapy, and/or targeted 40 to 44 years of age have the choice for annual mammography; therapy. Women with early stage breast cancer that tests posi- those 45 to 54 have annual mammography; and those 55 years of tive for hormone receptors benefit from treatment with age and older have biennial or annual mammography, continu- hormonal therapy for at least 5 years. For women whose cancer ing as long as their overall health is good and life expectancy is overexpresses the growth-promoting protein HER2, several tar- 10 or more years. For some women at high risk of breast cancer, geted therapies are available.
annual screening using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in addition to mammography is recommended, typically starting 10 Cancer Facts & Figures 2016
Survival: The 5-, 10-, and 15-year relative survival rates for
• Neuroblastoma (6%), a cancer of the nervous system that is breast cancer are 89%, 83%, and 78%, respectively. (Caution most common in children younger than 5 years of age and should be used when interpreting long-term survival rates usually appears as a swelling in the abdomen because they represent patients who were diagnosed many years • Wilms tumor (5%), a kidney cancer (also called nephroblastoma) ago and do not reflect recent advances in detection and treat- that may be recognized by a swelling or lump in the abdomen ment.) Most cases (61%) are diagnosed at a localized stage (no • Non-Hodgkin lymphoma including Burkitt lymphoma (5%), spread to lymph nodes, nearby structures, or other locations and Hodgkin lymphoma (3%), which are most common dur- outside the breast), for which the 5-year survival is 99% (Table 8, ing adolescence, affect lymph nodes, but may also involve the . Survival rates have increased over time for both bone marrow and other organs; may cause swelling of lymph white and black women, although they remain 11 percentage nodes in the neck, armpit, or groin, as well as general weak- points lower, in absolute terms, for blacks (Table 7 See Breast Cancer Facts & Figures 2015-2016 a • Rhabdomyosarcoma (3%), a soft tissue sarcoma that can for more detailed information.
occur in the head and neck, genitourinary area, trunk, and extremities, and may cause pain and/or a mass or swelling Childhood Cancer (Ages 0-14 years)
• Osteosarcoma (2%), a bone cancer that most often occurs in New cases: An estimated 10,380 new cases are expected to
adolescents and commonly appears as sporadic pain in the occur among children 0 to 14 years of age in 2016. affected bone that may worsen at night or with activity and eventually progresses to local swelling Incidence trends: Childhood cancer incidence rates have slowly
• Retinoblastoma (2%), an eye cancer that usually occurs in increased by 0.6% per year since 1975, when population-based children younger than 5 years of age and is typically recog- cancer registration began in the US.
nized because the pupil appears white or pink instead of Deaths: An estimated 1,250 cancer deaths are expected to occur
the normal red color in flash photographs or during an eye among children in 2016. Cancer is the second leading cause of death in children ages 1-14 years, exceeded only by accidents. • Ewing sarcoma (1%), another type of cancer that usually Mortality trends: Childhood cancer death rates declined by a
arises in the bone, is most common in adolescents, and typi- total of 66% from 1969 (6.5 per 100,000) to 2012 (2.2 per 100,000), cally appears as pain at the tumor site largely due to improvements in treatment and high rates of par- Risk factors: There are few known risk factors for childhood
ticipation in clinical trials. From 2003 to 2012, the death rate cancer. Exposure to ionizing radiation increases the risk of declined by 1.3% per year.
childhood leukemia and possibly other cancers. A small per- Signs and symptoms: The early diagnosis of childhood cancer
centage of childhood cancers are caused by a genetic mutation is often hampered by nonspecific symptoms that are similar that is inherited or arises during fetal development. Children to those of more common childhood diseases. Parents should with certain genetic syndromes, such as Down syndrome, are at ensure that children have regular medical checkups and be alert increased risk for leukemia. to unusual, persistent symptoms. These include an unusual mass Treatment: Childhood cancers are treated with surgery, radia-
or swelling; unexplained paleness or loss of energy; a sudden tion, and/or chemotherapy/targeted therapy based on the type increase in the tendency to bruise or bleed; a persistent, local- and stage of cancer. Treatment is coordinated by a team of ized pain or limping; a prolonged, unexplained fever or illness; experts, including pediatric oncologists and nurses, social work- frequent headaches, often with vomiting; sudden eye or vision ers, psychologists, and others trained to assist children and their changes; and excessive, rapid weight loss. Major categories of families. Outcomes are most successful when treatment is man- pediatric cancer, based on the International Classification of aged by specialists at a children's cancer center. If the child is Childhood Cancer, their distribution (including benign brain eligible, placement in a clinical trial, which compares a new tumors), and more specific symptoms include: treatment to the best current treatment, should be considered.
• Leukemia (30% of all childhood cancers), which may be Survival: Survival for all invasive childhood cancers combined
recognized by bone and joint pain, weakness, pale skin, has improved markedly over the past 30 years due to new and bleeding or bruising easily, and fever or infection improved treatments. The 5-year relative survival rate increased • Brain and other central nervous system tumors (26%), from 58% in the mid-1970s to 83% in the most recent time period which may cause headaches, nausea, vomiting, blurred or (2005-2011). However, rates vary considerably depending on can- double vision, seizures, dizziness, and difficulty walking or cer type, patient age, and other characteristics. The 5-year survival for retinoblastoma is 97%; Hodgkin lymphoma, 98%; Wilms tumor, 92%; non-Hodgkin lymphoma, 89%; leukemia, Cancer Facts & Figures 2016 11
85% (89% for acute lymphoid leukemia and 65% for acute myeloid Signs and symptoms: Early stage colorectal cancer typically
leukemia); neuroblastoma, 78%; Ewing sarcoma, 78%; brain and does not have symptoms, which is why screening is usually nec- other central nervous system tumors (excluding benign brain essary to detect this cancer early. Symptoms may include rectal tumors), 72%; osteosarcoma, 69%; and rhabdomyosarcoma, bleeding, blood in the stool, a change in bowel habits or stool 69%. Pediatric cancer patients may experience treatment- shape (e.g., narrower than usual), the feeling that the bowel is related side effects long after active treatment, including not completely empty, cramping pain in the lower abdomen, impairment in the function of specific organs (e.g., cognitive decreased appetite, or weight loss. In some cases, blood loss defects) and secondary cancers. The Children's Oncology Group from the cancer leads to anemia (low number of red blood cells), (COG) has developed guidelines for screening and management causing symptoms such as weakness and fatigue. Timely evalu- of late effects in survivors of childhood cancer. See the COG ation of symptoms consistent with colorectal cancer is essential, website at for more information. The even for adults younger than age 50.
Childhood Cancer Survivor Study, which has followed more Risk factors: The risk of colorectal cancer increases with age.
than 14,000 long-term childhood cancer survivors, has also pro- Modifiable factors that increase risk include obesity, physical vided valuable information about the late effects of cancer inactivity, long-term smoking, high consumption of red or pro- treatment; visit or more information.
cessed meat, low calcium intake, moderate to heavy alcohol See the Cancer Facts & Figures 2014 Special Section: Childhood consumption, and very low intake of fruit and vegetables. Con- & Adolescent Cancers at for more detailed sumption of whole-grain fiber reduces risk. Hereditary and medical factors that increase risk include a personal or family history of colorectal cancer and/or polyps, certain inherited Colon and Rectum
genetic conditions (e.g., Lynch syndrome, also known as heredi-tary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer [HNPCC], and familial New cases: An estimated 95,270 cases of colon cancer and
adenomatous polyposis [FAP]), a personal history of chronic 39,220 cases of rectal cancer are expected to be diagnosed in inflammatory bowel disease (e.g., ulcerative colitis or Crohn dis- 2016. Colorectal cancer is the third most common cancer in both ease), and type 2 diabetes. Regular long-term use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, Incidence trends: Incidence rates have generally been decreas-
such as aspirin, reduces risk. However, these drugs can have ing since the mid-1980s due to both changes in risk factors (e.g., serious adverse health effects, such as stomach bleeding. While decreased smoking, increased use of nonsteroidal anti-inflam- the American Cancer Society has not made recommendations matory drugs) and the uptake of screening among adults 50 about their use, the US Preventive Services Task Force issued a years of age and older. The pace of the decline has increased over draft statement in September 2015 recommending daily, low- the past 5 data years. However, trends differ by age. From 2008 to dose aspirin for some individuals at high risk for cardiovascular 2012, incidence rates declined by 4.5% per year among adults 50 disease based on a review of aspirin's harms and benefits, includ- years of age and older, but increased by 1.8% per year among ing the benefit of colorectal cancer prevention.
those younger than age 50. Reasons for the increase in young adults, which has been consistent since at least 1992, are Early detection: Beginning at the age of 50, men and women
who are at average risk for developing colorectal cancer should begin screening. Some screening tests can detect colorectal pol- Deaths: An estimated 49,190 deaths from colorectal cancer are
yps, which can be removed before becoming cancerous, whereas expected to occur in 2016. Colorectal cancer is the third leading all tests can detect cancer at an early stage, when treatment is cause of cancer death in both men and women and the second usually less extensive and more successful. There are a number leading cause of cancer death when men and women are com- of recommended screening options, which differ in terms of how bined. Deaths for cancers of the colon and rectum are combined often they should be performed and whether bowel preparation because of the large number of rectal cancer deaths that are mis- is required, as well as benefits, limitations, potential harms, and classified as colon on death certificates. This is thought to be cost. For the Society's recommendations for colorectal cancer largely due to the widespread use of the term "colon cancer" to refer to both colon and rectal cancers in educational messaging.
Treatment: Surgery is the most common treatment for colorec-
Mortality trends: Colorectal cancer death rates have been
tal cancers that have not spread. A permanent colostomy declining since 1980 in men and since 1947 in women, with an (creation of an abdominal opening for elimination of body overall drop of 49% from 1976 to 2012. This trend reflects waste) is not usually required for rectal cancer and is rarely nec- improvements in early detection and treatment, as well as essary for colon cancer. Chemotherapy alone, or in combination declines in incidence. From 2003 to 2012, death rates declined by with radiation, is given before (neoadjuvant) or after (adjuvant) 2.8% per year.
12 Cancer Facts & Figures 2016
surgery to most patients whose cancer has penetrated the bowel (observation) may be an option for some patients with small wall deeply or spread to lymph nodes. For colorectal cancer that tumors. Patients who are not surgical candidates may be offered has spread to other parts of the body (metastatic colorectal can- ablation therapy, a procedure that uses heat or cold to destroy cer), treatments typically include chemotherapy and/or targeted the tumor. So far, adjuvant treatment has not been shown to be helpful after surgery, although several targeted therapies are being studied. For metastatic disease, targeted therapies are Survival: The 5- and 10-year relative survival rates for colorec-
typically the main treatment, sometimes along with removal of tal cancer are 65% and 58%, respectively. Although 5-year survival for localized disease is 90% (Table 8, only 39% of patients are diagnosed at this stage, in part due to the Survival: The 5- and 10-year relative survival rates for kidney
underuse of screening. and renal pelvis cancer are 73% and 63%, respectively. Almost two-thirds of cases (65%) are diagnosed at a local stage, for For more detailed information, see Colorectal Cancer Facts & which the 5-year relative survival rate is 92% (Table 8, Figures 2014-2016 a.
). Five-year survival for cancer in the renal pelvis (50%) is lower than for cancer in the kidney (74%).
Kidney & Renal Pelvis
New cases: An estimated 62,700 new cases of kidney (renal) can-
cer are expected to be diagnosed in 2016. These are primarily New cases: An estimated 60,140 new cases of leukemia are
renal cell carcinomas, which occur in the body of the kidney, but expected in 2016. Leukemia is a cancer of the bone marrow and also include cancers of the renal pelvis (6%), which behave more blood and is classified into four main groups according to cell like bladder cancer, and Wilms tumor (1%), a childhood cancer type and rate of growth: acute lymphocytic (ALL), chronic lym- that usually develops before the age of 5 (see "Childhood Cancer phocytic (CLL), acute myeloid (AML), and chronic myeloid (Ages 0-14 years)" o. Men are twice as likely as (CML). Although leukemia is often thought of as a childhood women to be diagnosed with kidney cancer. cancer, the majority (91%) of cases are diagnosed in adults 20 Incidence trends: Kidney cancer incidence rates increased over
years of age and older. Among adults, the most common types the past several decades, in part due to incidental diagnoses are CLL (37%) and AML (31%), while ALL is most common in during abdominal imaging. However, rates stabilized from 2008 those 0 to 19 years, accounting for 75% of cases. Incidence trends: Overall leukemia incidence has increased
Deaths: An estimated 14,240 deaths from kidney cancer are
slowly for many decades; from 2003 to 2012, rates increased by expected to occur in 2016. 1.3% per year.
Mortality trends: Kidney cancer death rates have been decreas-
Deaths: An estimated 24,400 deaths are expected to occur in 2016.
ing by 0.7% per year since 1995.
Mortality trends: In contrast to incidence, death rates for leu-
Signs and symptoms: Early stage kidney cancer usually has no
kemia have dropped 18% since 1980, with a steady decline of symptoms. As the tumor progresses, symptoms may include 1.0% per year from 2001 to 2012. blood in the urine, a pain or lump in the lower back or abdomen, Signs and symptoms: Symptoms may include fatigue, paleness,
fatigue, weight loss, fever, or swelling in the legs and ankles.
weight loss, repeated infections, fever, bleeding or bruising eas- Risk factors: Obesity and tobacco smoking increase risk for kid-
ily, bone or joint pain, and swelling in the lymph nodes or ney cancer. Additional risk factors include high blood pressure; abdomen. In acute leukemia, these signs can appear suddenly. chronic renal failure; and occupational exposure to certain Chronic leukemia typically progresses slowly with few symp- chemicals, such as trichloroethylene. Radiation exposure (e.g., toms and is often diagnosed during routine blood tests. for cancer treatment) slightly increases risk. A small proportion Risk factors: Exposure to ionizing radiation increases the risk
of renal cell cancers are the result of rare hereditary conditions of most types of leukemia (excluding CLL). Medical radiation, (e.g., von Hippel-Lindau disease and hereditary papillary renal such as that used in cancer treatment, is one of the most com- cell carcinoma). mon sources of radiation exposure. The risk of leukemia is also Early detection: There are no recommended screening tests for
increased in patients treated with chemotherapy, children with the early detection of kidney cancer among people at average risk.
Down syndrome and certain other genetic abnormalities, and workers in the rubber-manufacturing industry. Studies suggest Treatment: Surgery (traditional or laparoscopic, i.e., minimally
that obesity also increases risk.
invasive, performed through very small incisions) is the primary treatment for most kidney cancers, although active surveillance Cancer Facts & Figures 2016 13
Table 6. Probability (%) of Developing Invasive Cancer during Selected Age Intervals by Sex, US, 2010-2012*
Birth to 49
70 and older
Birth to death
Kidney & renal pelvis Melanoma of the skin‡ Non-Hodgkin lymphoma *For those who are free of cancer at the beginning of each age interval. †All sites excludes basal cell and squamous cell skin cancers and in situ cancers except urinary
bladder. ‡Statistic is for whites.
Source: DevCan: Probability of Developing or Dying of Cancer Software, Version 6.7.3. Statistical Research and Applications Branch, National Cancer Institute, 2015.
Please note: The probability of developing cancer for additional sites, as well as the probability of cancer death, can be found in Supplemental Data a
American Cancer Society, Inc., Surveil ance Research, 2016 Some risk factors are most closely associated with specific types Some of these drugs are also used to treat a type of ALL involv- of leukemia. For example, family history is a strong risk factor ing a similar genetic defect. People diagnosed with CLL that is for CLL. Cigarette smoking is a risk factor for AML in adults, and not progressing or causing symptoms may not require treat- there is accumulating evidence that parental smoking before ment. For those who do require treatment, CLL-targeted drugs and after childbirth may increase the risk of childhood leuke- are effective for some patients, even when other treatments are mia. There is limited evidence that maternal exposure to paint no longer working. Certain types of leukemia may be treated fumes also increases the risk of childhood leukemia. Exposure with high-dose chemotherapy followed by stem cell transplanta- to certain chemicals, such as formaldehyde and benzene, tion under appropriate conditions.
increases the risk of myeloid leukemia. Infection with human Survival: Survival rates vary substantially by leukemia subtype,
T-cell leukemia virus type I (HTLV-I) can cause a rare type of ranging from a current (2005-2011) 5-year relative survival of leukemia called adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma. The preva- 26% for patients diagnosed with AML to 82% for those with CLL. lence of HTLV-I infection is most common in southern Japan and Advances in treatment have resulted in a dramatic improve- the Caribbean, and infected individuals in the US tend to be ment in survival over the past three decades for most types of immigrants (or their descendants) from these regions.
leukemia (Table 7, . For example, from 1975-1977 to Early detection: There are no recommended screening tests for
2005-2011, the overall 5-year relative survival for ALL increased the early detection of leukemia. However, it is sometimes diag- from 41% to 70%. In large part due to the discovery of targeted nosed early because of abnormal results on blood tests performed drugs, the 5-year survival rate for CML has doubled over the past for other indications.
two decades, from 31% in the early 1990s to 63% for patients diagnosed from 2005 to 2011. Survival rates beyond 5 years are Treatment: Chemotherapy is used to treat most types of leuke-
more relevant for chronic than for acute leukemia because of the mia. Various anticancer drugs are used, either in combination or slow-growing nature of chronic disease. For example, the abso- as single agents. Several targeted drugs are effective for treating lute drop in the survival rate from 5 to 10 years following CML because they attack cells with the Philadelphia chromo- diagnosis is 15 percentage points for chronic leukemia versus 3 some, the genetic abnormality that is the hallmark of CML. points for acute leukemia.
14 Cancer Facts & Figures 2016
Treatment: Early stage liver cancer can sometimes be treated
successfully with surgery to remove part of the liver (partial
New cases: An estimated 39,230 new cases of liver cancer
hepatectomy); however, only a limited number of patients have (including intrahepatic bile duct cancers) are expected to occur sufficient healthy liver tissue for this option. Liver transplanta- in the US during 2016, approximately three-fourths of which will tion may be possible for individuals with small tumors who are be hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Liver cancer is about 3 not candidates for partial hepatectomy. Other treatment options times more common in men than in women. include ablation (tumor destruction) or embolization (blocking Incidence trends: Liver cancer incidence has more than tripled
blood flow to the tumor).
since 1980. However, rates in young adults have recently begun Fewer treatment options exist for patients diagnosed at an to decline. From 2008 to 2012, the rate increased by 3.5% per year advanced stage. Sorafenib (Nexavar®) is a targeted drug approved among those 50 and older, but decreased by 3.9% per year among for the treatment of HCC in patients who are not candidates for adults younger than 50 years of age.
surgery and do not have severe cirrhosis.
Deaths: An estimated 27,170 liver cancer deaths are expected
Survival: The 1- and 5-year relative survival rates for patients
with liver cancer are 44% and 17%, respectively. Forty-three per- Mortality trends: Liver cancer death rates have generally been
cent of patients are diagnosed with a localized stage of disease, increasing since 1980; from 2003 to 2012, rates increased by 2.7% for which 5-year survival is 31% (Table 8, Signs and symptoms: Common symptoms, which do not usu-
Lung and Bronchus
ally appear until the cancer is advanced, include abdominal New cases: Lung cancer is the second most commonly diag-
pain and/or swelling, weight loss, weakness, loss of appetite, nosed cancer in both men and women. An estimated 224,390 jaundice (a yellowish discoloration of the skin and eyes), and new cases of lung cancer are expected in 2016, accounting for fever. Enlargement of the liver is the most common physical sign.
about 14% of all cancer diagnoses. Risk factors: The most important risk factors for liver cancer in
Incidence trends: The incidence rate has been declining since
the US are chronic infection with hepatitis B virus (HBV) and/or the mid-1980s in men, but only since the mid-2000s in women. hepatitis C virus (HCV), heavy alcohol consumption, obesity, Gender differences reflect historical patterns of smoking uptake diabetes, tobacco smoking, and certain rare genetic disorders, and cessation over the past several decades. From 2008 to 2012, such as hemochromatosis. A vaccine that protects against HBV lung cancer incidence rates decreased by 3.0% per year in men has been available since 1982, and is recommended for all infants and by 1.9% per year in women.
at birth; for all children under 18 years of age who were not vac-cinated at birth; and for adults in high-risk groups (e.g., health Deaths: Lung cancer accounts for more deaths than any other
care workers, injection drug users, and those younger than 60 cancer in both men and women. An estimated 158,080 deaths years of age who have been diagnosed with diabetes). There is no are expected to occur in 2016, accounting for about 1 in 4 cancer vaccine available to prevent HCV infection, although new com- bination antiviral therapies can often clear the infection and Mortality trends: Death rates have declined by 38% since 1990
reduce the risk of cancer development among those already in men and by 12% since 2002 in women due to the drop in smok- infected. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) ing prevalence. From 2008 to 2012, rates decreased by 2.9% per recommends one-time HCV testing for everyone born from 1945 year in men and by 1.9% per year in women. to 1965 because people in this birth cohort account for about three-fourths of HCV-infected individuals and HCV-related Signs and symptoms: Symptoms do not usually occur until the
deaths in the US. Preventive measures for HCV infection include cancer is advanced, and may include persistent cough, sputum screening of donated blood, organs, and tissues; adherence to streaked with blood, chest pain, voice change, worsening short- infection control practices during medical and dental proce- ness of breath, and recurrent pneumonia or bronchitis.
dures; and needle-exchange programs for injection drug users. Risk factors: Cigarette smoking is by far the most important
Visit the CDC website at or more information risk factor for lung cancer; 80% of lung cancer deaths in the US on viral hepatitis, including who is at risk.
are caused by smoking. Risk increases with both quantity and Early detection: Although screening for liver cancer has not
duration of smoking. Cigar and pipe smoking also increase risk. been shown to reduce mortality, many health care providers in Exposure to radon gas released from soil and building materials the US test individuals at high risk for the disease (e.g., those is estimated to be the second-leading cause of lung cancer in the with cirrhosis) with ultrasound or blood tests.
US. Other risk factors include occupational or environmental exposure to secondhand smoke, asbestos (particularly among Cancer Facts & Figures 2016 15
smokers), certain metals (chromium, cadmium, arsenic), some Incidence trends: Incidence rates for Hodgkin lymphoma
organic chemicals, radiation, air pollution, and diesel exhaust. increased slightly from 2001 to 2007, then declined from 2008 to Additional occupational exposures that increase risk include 2012 by 2.4% per year. Incidence rates for NHL leveled off from rubber manufacturing, paving, roofing, painting, and chimney 2003 to 2012 after increasing for several decades. (Patterns vary sweeping. Risk is also probably increased among people with a history of tuberculosis. Genetic susceptibility plays a role in the Deaths: An estimated 21,270 deaths from lymphoma will occur
development of lung cancer, especially in those who develop the in 2016, most of which will be due to NHL (20,150). disease at a young age.
Mortality trends: Death rates for Hodgkin lymphoma have
Early detection: Screening with low-dose spiral computed
been decreasing for the past four decades; from 2003 to 2012, tomography (LDCT) has been shown to reduce lung cancer mor- rates decreased by 2.5% per year. Death rates for NHL began tality by 20% compared to standard chest x-ray among adults decreasing in the late 1990s, with a decline of 2.5% per year from with at least a 30 pack-year smoking history who were current 2003 to 2012. Reductions in lymphoma death rates reflect smokers or had quit within 15 years. The American Cancer Soci- improvements in treatment.
ety guidelines for the early detection of lung cancer endorse a process of shared decision making between clinicians who have Signs and symptoms: The most common symptoms of lym-
access to high-volume, high-quality lung cancer screening pro- phoma are caused by swollen lymph nodes, and include lumps grams and current or former smokers (quit within 15 years) who under the skin; chest pain; shortness of breath; and abdominal are 55 to 74 years of age, in good health, and with at least a 30 fullness and loss of appetite. Other symptoms can include itch- pack-year history of smoking. Shared decision making should ing, night sweats, fatigue, unexplained weight loss, and include a discussion of the benefits, uncertainties, and harms intermittent fever.
associated with lung cancer screening. The US Preventive Ser- Risk factors: Like most cancers, the risk of developing NHL
vices Task Force has issued similar guidelines. For more increases with age. In contrast, the risk of Hodgkin lymphoma information on lung cancer screening, see the American Cancer increases during adolescence and early adulthood, decreases Society's screening guidelines on during middle age, and then increases again later in life. Most of Treatment: Appropriate treatment for lung cancer is based on
the few known risk factors for lymphoma are associated with whether the tumor is small cell (13%) or non-small cell (83%), as severely altered immune function. For example, risk is elevated well as other tumor characteristics. Based on type and stage of in people who receive immune suppressants to prevent organ cancer, as well as specific molecular characteristics of cancer transplant rejection. Certain infectious agents increase the risk cells, treatments can include surgery, radiation therapy, chemo- of some lymphoma subtypes. Epstein-Barr virus causes Burkitt therapy, and/or targeted therapies. For early stage non-small cell lymphoma (an aggressive type of NHL), as well as a number of lung cancers, surgery is usually the treatment of choice; chemo- autoimmune-related NHLs, post-transplant lymphoprolifera- therapy (sometimes in combination with radiation therapy) may tive disorders (the most common cancer after organ transplant), be given as well. Advanced-stage non-small cell lung cancer and a subset of Hodgkin lymphoma. In addition, chronic infec- patients are usually treated with chemotherapy, targeted drugs tion with infectious agents that cause immunosuppression (e.g., (or a combination of the two), or immunotherapy. Chemother- human immunodeficiency virus [HIV]) or that cause the apy, alone or combined with radiation, is the usual treatment for immune system to be continuously active (e.g., Helicobacter small cell lung cancer; on this regimen, a large percentage of pylori, hepatitis C virus) are associated with certain NHL sub- patients experience remission, though the cancer often returns.
types. A family history of lymphoma confers increased risk of all Hodgkin lymphoma and NHL subtypes, and a growing number Survival: The 1- and 5-year relative survival rates for lung can-
of confirmed common genetic variations are associated with cer are 44% and 17%, respectively. Only 16% of lung cancers are modestly increased risk. Studies also suggest a role for some diagnosed at a localized stage, for which the 5-year survival is behavioral risk factors (e.g., body weight) and environmental 55% (Table 8. The 5-year survival rate for small cell exposures for some subtypes.
lung cancer (7%) is lower than that for non-small cell (21%).
Treatment: NHL patients are usually treated with chemotherapy;
radiation, alone or in combination with chemotherapy, is used less often. Targeted drugs directed at lymphoma cells are used New cases: An estimated 81,080 new cases of lymphoma will be
for some NHL subtypes, as are antibodies linked to a chemother- diagnosed in 2016. This cancer begins in certain immune system apy drug or a radioactive atom. If NHL persists or recurs after cells, and is classified as either Hodgkin lymphoma (8,500 cases) standard treatment, stem cell transplantation may be an option.
or non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL, 72,580 cases). 16 Cancer Facts & Figures 2016
Hodgkin lymphoma is usually treated with chemotherapy, radi- by dentists and physicians can often detect premalignant abnor- ation therapy, or a combination of the two, depending on disease malities and cancer at an early stage, when treatment may be stage and cell type. Stem cell transplantation may be an option less extensive and more successful.
if other treatments are not effective. Patients whose Hodgkin Treatment: Radiation therapy and surgery, separately or in
lymphoma has failed to respond to treatment may be given a combination, are standard treatments; chemotherapy is added monoclonal antibody linked to a chemotherapy drug.
for advanced disease. Targeted therapy may be combined with Survival: Survival varies widely by subtype and stage of disease.
radiation in initial treatment or used to treat recurrent cancer.
For NHL, the overall 5- and 10-year relative survival rates are Survival: The 5- and 10-year relative survival rates for people
70% and 60%, respectively. For Hodgkin lymphoma, the 5- and with cancer of the oral cavity and pharynx are 63% and 52%, 10-year relative survival rates are 86% and 80%, respectively.
respectively. Less than one-third (31%) of cases are diagnosed at a local stage, for which 5-year survival is 83% (Table 8, Oral Cavity and Pharynx
). Five-year survival varies substantially by subsite, and is New cases: An estimated 48,330 new cases of cancer of the oral
highest for lip (90%) and salivary gland (73%) and lowest for cavity and pharynx (throat) are expected in 2016. Incidence hypopharynx (32%) and floor of mouth (51%). rates are more than twice as high in men as in women. Incidence trends: From 2003 to 2012, incidence rates among
whites increased by 1.3% per year in men and were stable in New cases: An estimated 22,280 new cases of ovarian cancer are
women, while among blacks rates declined by 2.8% per year in expected in the US in 2016. men and by 1.6% per year in women. The increase among white Incidence trends: From 2003 to 2012, ovarian cancer incidence
men is driven by a subset of cancers in the oropharynx, includ- rates decreased by 0.9% per year, a trend that has held steady ing the base of tongue and tonsils, that is associated with human since the mid-1980s.
papillomavirus (HPV) infection. HPV-associated oral cancers recently began increasing in white women as well.
Deaths: An estimated 14,240 deaths are expected in 2016. Ovar-
ian cancer accounts for 5% of cancer deaths among women,
Deaths: An estimated 9,570 deaths from cancers of the oral cav-
causing more deaths than any other gynecologic cancer. ity and pharynx are expected in 2016. Mortality trends: The decline in ovarian cancer death rates
Mortality trends: Overall death rates for cancers of the oral
was slow from 1975 until 2002, but gained momentum in the cavity and pharynx have been decreasing over most of the past past decade. From 2003 to 2012, the rate decreased by 2.0% per three decades, partly due to the downturn in the smoking epi- demic. However, from 2003 to 2012, while rates continued to decrease in women (by 1.1% per year in whites and 3.5% per year Signs and symptoms: Early ovarian cancer usually has no obvi-
in blacks), they stabilized in men, likely due to the increased ous symptoms. However, studies indicate that some women incidence of HPV-related cancers.
experience persistent, nonspecific symptoms, such as bloating, pelvic or abdominal pain, difficulty eating or feeling full quickly, Signs and symptoms: Symptoms may include a lesion in the
or urinary urgency or frequency. Women who experience such throat or mouth that bleeds easily and does not heal; a persistent symptoms daily for more than a few weeks should seek prompt red or white patch, lump, or thickening in the throat or mouth; medical evaluation. The most common sign of ovarian cancer is ear pain; a neck mass; or coughing up blood. Difficulty chewing, swelling of the abdomen, which is caused by the accumulation swallowing, or moving the tongue or jaws are often late of fluid. Abnormal vaginal bleeding is rarely a symptom of ovar- ian cancer, though it is a symptom of cervical and uterine Risk factors: Known risk factors include tobacco use in any
form (smoked and smokeless) and excessive alcohol consump- Risk factors: The most important risk factor is a strong family
tion. Many studies have reported a synergistic relationship history of breast or ovarian cancer. Women who have had breast between smoking and alcohol, resulting in a 30-fold increased cancer or who have tested positive for inherited mutations in risk for individuals who both smoke and drink heavily. HPV ovarian cancer susceptibility genes, such as BRCA1 or BRCA2, infection of the mouth and throat, believed to be transmitted are at increased risk. Preventive surgery to remove the ovaries through sexual contact, also increases risk.
and fallopian tubes in these women decreases the risk of ovarian Early detection: Cancer can affect any part of the oral cavity,
cancer. Other medical conditions associated with increased risk including the lip, tongue, mouth, and throat. Visual inspection include pelvic inflammatory disease and Lynch syndrome. The Cancer Facts & Figures 2016 17
Table 7. Trends in 5-year Relative Survival Rates* (%) by Race, US, 1975-2011
All races
Brain & other nervous system Kidney & renal pelvis Liver & intrahepatic bile duct Melanoma of the skin Non-Hodgkin lymphoma Oral cavity & pharynx *Rates are adjusted for normal life expectancy and are based on cases diagnosed in the SEER 9 areas from 1975 to 1977, 1987 to 1989, and 2005 to 2011, all fol owed
through 2012. †The difference between the 1975-1977 and 2005-2011 rates is statistical y significant (p<0.05). ‡The standard error is between 5 and 10 percentage
points. §Survival rate is for cases diagnosed from 1978 to 1980.
Source: Howlader N, Noone AM, Krapcho M, et al. (eds). SEER Cancer Statistics Review, 1975-2012, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD,
based on November 2014 SEER data submission, posted to the SEER website April 2015.
American Cancer Society, Inc., Surveil ance Research, 2016 use of menopausal hormone therapy (estrogen alone and estro- ing ovarian cancer mortality when used as a screening tool in gen combined with progesterone) also increases risk. Tobacco average-risk women. smoking increases the risk of a rare type of ovarian cancer Treatment: Treatment includes surgery and often chemother-
(mucinous). Pregnancy, long-term use of oral contraceptives, apy. Surgery usually involves removal of both ovaries and and tubal ligation reduce risk. fallopian tubes (salpingo-oophorectomy), the uterus (hysterec- Early detection: There is currently no sufficiently accurate
tomy), and the omentum (fatty tissue attached to some of the screening test for the early detection of ovarian cancer in aver- organs in the belly), along with biopsies of the peritoneum (lin- age-risk women. A pelvic exam, sometimes in combination with ing of the abdominal cavity). In younger women with very early a transvaginal ultrasound, may be used to evaluate women with stage tumors who want to preserve fertility, only the involved symptoms, but only occasionally detects ovarian cancer, gener- ovary and fallopian tube may be removed. Among patients with ally when the disease is advanced. For women who are at high early ovarian cancer, more accurate surgical staging (micro- risk, a thorough pelvic exam in combination with transvaginal scopic examination of tissue from different parts of the pelvis and ultrasound and a blood test for the tumor marker CA125 may be abdomen) has been associated with better outcomes. For some offered, although this strategy has not proven effective in reduc- women with advanced disease, chemotherapy administered 18 Cancer Facts & Figures 2016
directly into the abdomen improves survival; however, in 2012, those who undergo surgery, adjuvant treatment with chemother- less than half of eligible women received this treatment. Tar- apy (and sometimes radiation) may lower the risk of recurrence. geted drugs can sometimes be used after other treatments to For advanced disease, chemotherapy (sometimes along with a shrink tumors or slow growth of advanced cancers.
targeted therapy drug) may lengthen survival. Clinical trials are testing whether several new agents offer improved survival.
Survival: Overall, the 5- and 10-year relative survival rates for
ovarian cancer patients are 46% and 35%, respectively. However,
Survival: For all stages combined, the 1- and 5-year relative sur-
survival varies substantially by age; women younger than 65 are vival rates are 29% and 7%, respectively. Even for the small twice as likely to survive 5 years as women 65 and older (58% percentage of people diagnosed with local disease (9%), the versus 28%). Overall, only 15% of cases are diagnosed at a local 5-year survival is only 27%. More than half (53%) of patients are stage, for which 5-year survival is 92%. diagnosed at a distant stage, for which 1- and 5-year survival is 15% and 2%, respectively. Five-year relative survival is substan- tially higher for neuroendocrine (53%) than exocrine (5%) tumors.
New cases: An estimated 53,070 new cases of pancreatic cancer
are expected to occur in the US in 2016. Most (95%) will be can-
cers of the exocrine pancreas, which produces enzymes to digest New cases: An estimated 180,890 new cases of prostate cancer
food. Much rarer are neuroendocrine tumors (5%), which have a will occur in the US during 2016. Prostate cancer is the most fre- younger median age at diagnosis and better prognosis. quently diagnosed cancer in men aside from skin cancer. For reasons that remain unclear, the risk of prostate cancer is 70% Incidence trends: Pancreatic cancer incidence rates increased
higher in blacks than in non-Hispanic whites. by 1.2% per year from 2000 through 2012.
Incidence trends: In the late 1980s and early 1990s, incidence
Deaths: An estimated 41,780 deaths from pancreatic cancer will
rates for prostate cancer spiked dramatically, in large part occur in 2016, with similar numbers in men (21,450) and women because of widespread screening with the prostate-specific antigen (PSA) blood test. From 2003 to 2012, rates decreased by Mortality trends: Death rates for pancreatic cancer have
4.0% per year.
increased by 0.4% per year since 2000.
Deaths: With an estimated 26,120 deaths in 2016, prostate can-
Signs and symptoms: Symptoms for pancreatic cancer, which
cer is the second-leading cause of cancer death in men. usually do not appear until the disease has progressed, include Mortality trends: Prostate cancer death rates have been
weight loss, abdominal discomfort that may radiate to the back, decreasing since the early 1990s in men of all races/ethnicities, and occasionally the development of diabetes. Tumors that although they remain more than twice as high in blacks as in develop near the common bile duct can cause jaundice (yellow- any other group (see Table 9, ). Overall, prostate can- ing of the skin and eyes), which sometimes allows the tumor to cer death rates decreased by 3.5% per year from 2003 to 2012. be diagnosed at an early stage. Signs of advanced stage disease These declines are due to improvements in early detection and may include severe abdominal pain, nausea, and vomiting.
Risk factors: The risk of pancreatic cancer in cigarette smokers
Signs and symptoms: Early prostate cancer usually has no
is about twice that for never smokers. Use of smokeless tobacco symptoms. With more advanced disease, men may experience also increases risk. Other risk factors include a family history of weak or interrupted urine flow; difficulty starting or stopping pancreatic cancer, a personal history of chronic pancreatitis or the urine flow; the need to urinate frequently, especially at night; diabetes, and obesity. Individuals with Lynch syndrome and cer- blood in the urine; or pain or burning with urination. Advanced tain other genetic syndromes, and BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutation prostate cancer commonly spreads to the bones, which can carriers, are also at increased risk.
cause pain in the hips, spine, ribs, or other areas.
Early detection: There is currently no reliable method for the
Risk factors: The only well-established risk factors for prostate
early detection of pancreatic cancer.
cancer are increasing age, African ancestry, a family history of Treatment: Surgery, radiation therapy, and chemotherapy are
the disease, and certain inherited genetic conditions. Black men treatment options that may extend survival and/or relieve symp- in the US and Caribbean men of African descent have the high- toms, but seldom produce a cure. Less than 20% of patients are est documented prostate cancer incidence rates in the world. candidates for surgery because pancreatic cancer is usually Genetic studies suggest that strong familial predisposition may detected after it has spread beyond the pancreas. Even among be responsible for 5%-10% of prostate cancers. Inherited condi- patients who are thought to be surgical candidates, the cancer is tions associated with increased risk include Lynch syndrome often found to have spread too extensively to be removed. For and BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutations. Studies suggest that obesity Cancer Facts & Figures 2016 19
and smoking do not increase the overall risk of developing effective, although recent studies have shown that adding che- prostate cancer, but may increase risk of developing aggressive/ motherapy to initial hormone therapy may lengthen survival. An option for some men with advanced prostate cancer that is no longer responding to hormones is a cancer vaccine designed Prevention: The chemoprevention of prostate cancer is an
to stimulate the patient's immune system to specifically attack active area of research. Two drugs of interest, finasteride and prostate cancer cells. Newer forms of hormone therapy have dutasteride, reduce the amount of certain male hormones in the been shown to be beneficial for the treatment of metastatic dis- body and are approved to treat the symptoms of benign pros- ease that is resistant to initial hormone therapy and/or tatic hyperplasia. Although these drugs also seem to reduce chemotherapy. Other types of drugs can be used to treat pros- prostate cancer risk, neither is approved for the prevention of tate cancer that has spread to the bones.
prostate cancer because they have not been shown to improve overall or prostate cancer-specific survival and also have impor- Survival: The majority (92%) of prostate cancers are discovered
tant side effects (e.g., erectile dysfunction).
at a local or regional stage, for which the 5-year relative survival rate approaches 100%. Over the past 25 years, the 5-year relative Early detection: No organizations presently endorse routine
survival rate for all stages combined has increased from 68% to prostate cancer screening for men at average risk because of 99% (Table 8), some of which is due to the detection of concerns about the high rate of overdiagnosis, along with the indolent disease. According to the most recent data, 10- and significant potential for serious side effects associated with 15-year relative survival rates are 98% and 95%, respectively.
prostate cancer treatment. The American Cancer Society rec-ommends that beginning at age 50, men who are at average risk of prostate cancer and have a life expectancy of at least 10 years have a conversation with their health care provider about the New cases: Skin cancer is the most commonly diagnosed cancer
benefits and limitations of PSA testing. Men should have an in the US. However, the actual number of the most common opportunity to make an informed decision about whether to be types – basal cell and squamous cell skin cancer (i.e., keratino- tested based on their personal values and preferences. Men at cyte carcinoma or KC), also referred to as nonmelanoma skin high risk of developing prostate cancer (black men or those with cancer – is very difficult to estimate because these cases are not a close relative diagnosed with prostate cancer before the age of required to be reported to cancer registries. The most recent 65) should have this discussion beginning at age 45, and men at study of KC occurrence estimated that in 2012, 5.4 million cases even higher risk (those with several close relatives diagnosed at were diagnosed among 3.3 million people (many people are an early age) should have this discussion at age 40.
diagnosed with more than one KC). Treatment: Treatment options vary depending on age, stage,
An estimated 76,380 new cases of melanoma will be diagnosed and grade of cancer, as well as other medical conditions. Careful in 2016. Melanoma accounts for only 1% of all skin cancer cases, observation (called active surveillance) instead of immediate but the vast majority of skin cancer deaths. It is most commonly treatment is appropriate for many patients, particularly those diagnosed in non-Hispanic whites; the annual incidence rate is 1 diagnosed at an early stage or with less aggressive tumors and (per 100,000) in blacks, 4 in Hispanics, and 25 in non-Hispanic for older men. Treatment options include surgery (open, laparo- whites. Incidence rates are higher in women than in men before scopic, or robotic-assisted), external beam radiation, or age 50, but by age 65, rates in men are double those in women, radioactive seed implants (brachytherapy). Hormonal therapy and by age 80 they are triple. This pattern reflects differences in may be used along with surgery or radiation therapy in more occupational and recreational exposure to ultraviolet radiation advanced cases. Treatment often impacts a man's quality of life by sex and age, which have changed over time. due to side effects or complications, such as urinary and erectile difficulties, which may be short or long term. Current research is Incidence trends: Overall, the incidence of cutaneous mela-
exploring new biologic markers for prostate cancer in order to noma has risen rapidly over the past 30 years. However, the past improve the distinction between indolent and aggressive dis- 5 years of data indicate that rates are declining or plateauing ease to minimize unnecessary treatment.
among those younger than 50. For example, from 2008 to 2012, incidence rates declined by about 3% per year in both men and Distant stage disease is treated with hormonal therapy, chemo- women ages 20-29. In contrast, among adults 50 and older, the therapy, radiation therapy, and/or other treatments. Hormone incidence rate has increased by 2.6% per year since 1996. treatment may control advanced prostate cancer for long peri-ods of time by shrinking the size or limiting the growth of Deaths: In 2016, an estimated 10,130 deaths from melanoma
the cancer, thus helping to relieve pain and other symptoms. and 3,520 deaths from other types of skin cancer (not including Chemotherapy is often used if hormone treatments are no longer 20 Cancer Facts & Figures 2016
Table 8. Five-year Relative Survival Rates* (%) by Stage at Diagnosis, US, 2005-2011
All stages
All stages
Urinary bladder§ Melanoma of the skin Oral cavity & pharynx *Rates are adjusted for normal life expectancy and are based on cases diagnosed in the SEER 18 areas from 2005-2011, all fol owed through 2012. †Includes renal pelvis.
‡Includes intrahepatic bile duct. §Rate for in situ cases is 96%.
Local: an invasive malignant cancer confined entirely to the organ of origin. Regional: a malignant cancer that 1) has extended beyond the limits of the organ of origin
directly into surrounding organs or tissues; 2) involves regional lymph nodes; or 3) has both regional extension and involvement of regional lymph nodes. Distant: a
malignant cancer that has spread to parts of the body remote from the primary tumor either by direct extension or by discontinuous metastasis to distant organs, tissues,
or via the lymphatic system to distant lymph nodes.
Source: Howlader N, Noone AM, Krapcho M, et al. (eds). SEER Cancer Statistics Review, 1975-2012, National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD,
based on November 2014 SEER data submission, posted to the SEER website April 2015.
American Cancer Society, Inc., Surveil ance Research, 2016 Mortality trends: Although overall mortality rates have been
Prevention: Minimize skin exposure to intense UV radiation by
stable since the late 1980s, these trends also vary by age. While seeking shade; wearing protective clothing (long sleeves, long rates in individuals younger than 50 have been declining by 2.6% pants or skirts, tightly woven fabric, and a wide-brimmed hat); per year since 1986, they have been increasing by 0.6% per year wearing sunglasses that block ultraviolet rays; applying broad- since 1990 among those 50 and older.
spectrum sunscreen that has a sun protection factor (SPF) of 30 or higher to unprotected skin; and not sunbathing or indoor tan- Signs and symptoms: Warning signs of skin cancer include
ning. Children should be especially protected from the sun changes in the size, shape, or color of a mole or other skin lesion, because severe sunburns in childhood may greatly increase the the appearance of a new growth on the skin, or a sore that doesn't risk of melanoma. In July 2014, the US Surgeon General released heal. Changes that progress over a month or more should be a Call to Action to Prevent Skin Cancer, citing the elevated and evaluated by a health care provider. Basal cell carcinoma may growing burden of this disease. The purpose of this initiative is appear as a growth that is flat, or as a small, raised pink or red to increase awareness and encourage all Americans to engage in translucent, shiny area that may bleed following minor injury. behaviors that reduce the risk of skin cancer. Se Squamous cell carcinoma may appear as a growing lump, often with a rough surface, or as a flat, reddish patch that grows for more information.
Early detection: The best way to detect skin cancer early is to
Risk factors: For melanoma, major risk factors include a per-
recognize new or changing skin growths, particularly those that sonal or family history of melanoma and the presence of atypical, look different from other moles. All major areas of the skin large, or numerous (more than 50) moles. High exposure to should be examined regularly, and any new or unusual lesions, ultraviolet (UV) radiation, from sunlight or use of indoor tan- or a progressive change in a lesion's appearance (size, shape, or ning, is a major risk factor for all types of skin cancer. (The color, etc.), should be evaluated promptly by a physician. The International Agency for Research on Cancer has classified ABCDE rule outlines warning signs of the most common type of indoor tanning devices as "carcinogenic to humans" based on an melanoma: A is for asymmetry (one half of the mole does not extensive review of scientific evidence.) People at highest risk match the other half); B is for border irregularity (the edges are include those with sun sensitivity (e.g., sunburning easily, diffi- ragged, notched, or blurred); C is for color (the pigmentation is culty tanning, or natural blond or red hair color); a history of not uniform, with variable degrees of tan, brown, or black); D is excessive sun exposure, including sunburns; diseases or treat- for diameter greater than 6 millimeters (about the size of a pen- ments that suppress the immune system; and a past history of cil eraser); and E is for evolution. Not all melanomas have these signs, so be alert for any new or changing skin growths or spots.
Cancer Facts & Figures 2016 21
Treatment: Most early skin cancers are diagnosed and treated
Risk factors: Risk factors for thyroid cancer include being
by removal and microscopic examination of the cells. Early stage female, having a history of goiter (enlarged thyroid) or thyroid KC can be treated in most cases by one of several methods: surgi- nodules, a family history of thyroid cancer, and radiation expo- cal excision, electrodessication and curettage (tissue destruction sure early in life (e.g., as a result of medical treatment). People by electric current and removal by scraping with a curette), or who test positive for a mutation in a gene called RET, which cryosurgery (tissue destruction by freezing). Radiation therapy causes a hereditary form of thyroid cancer (familial medullary and certain topical medications may be used. For melanoma, thyroid carcinoma), can lower their risk of developing the dis- the primary growth and surrounding normal tissue are removed ease by having the thyroid gland surgically removed. Certain and sometimes a sentinel lymph node is biopsied to determine rare genetic syndromes, such as familial adenomatous polyposis stage. More extensive lymph node surgery may be needed if the (FAP), also increase risk. Unlike most other adult cancers, for sentinel lymph nodes contain cancer. Melanomas with deep which older age increases risk, 70% of cases are diagnosed in invasion or that have spread to lymph nodes may be treated with patients younger than age 60.
surgery, immunotherapy, chemotherapy, and/or radiation ther- Early detection: At present, there is no screening test recom-
apy. The treatment of advanced melanoma has changed greatly mended for the early detection of thyroid cancer. However, in recent years with the FDA approval of several new immuno- because symptoms usually develop early and many cancers are therapy and targeted drugs, which shrink a large portion of found incidentally, two-thirds of thyroid cancers are diagnosed melanomas. Chemotherapy might be used, although it is usually at an early stage.
less effective than newer treatments.
Treatment: Most thyroid cancers are highly curable, though
Survival: Almost all cases of KC can be cured, especially if the
about 5% (medullary and anaplastic thyroid cancers) are more cancer is detected and treated early. Although melanoma is also aggressive and more likely to spread to other organs. Treatment highly curable when detected in its earliest stages, it is more likely depends on the cell type, tumor size, and extent of disease. The than KC to spread to other parts of the body. The 5- and 10-year first choice of treatment is usually surgery to partially or totally relative survival rates for people with melanoma are 92% and 89%, remove the thyroid gland (thyroidectomy) and sometimes respectively. The 5-year survival rate is 98% for localized mela- nearby lymph nodes. Treatment with radioactive iodine (I-131) noma (84% of cases), but declines to 63% and 17% for regional and after complete thyroidectomy to destroy any remaining thyroid distant stage disease, respectively (Table 8).
tissue may be recommended for large tumors or when cancer has spread outside the thyroid. Thyroid hormone replacement therapy is given after thyroidectomy to replace hormones nor- New cases: An estimated 64,300 new cases of thyroid cancer are
mally made by the thyroid gland and to prevent the body from expected to be diagnosed in 2016 in the US, with 3 out of 4 cases making thyroid-stimulating hormone, decreasing the likelihood occurring in women. of recurrence. For some types of advanced thyroid cancer, tar-geted drugs can be used to help shrink or slow tumor growth.
Incidence trends: Thyroid cancer has been increasing world-
wide over the past few decades and is the most rapidly increasing
Survival: The 5-, 10-, and 15-year relative survival rates are 98%,
cancer in the US. The rise is thought to be partly due to increased 97%, and 95% respectively. However, survival varies by stage detection because of more sensitive diagnostic procedures, (Table 8), age at diagnosis, and disease subtype. likely resulting in some overdiagnoses. In the US, rates increased by 5.1% per year from 2003 to 2012.
Deaths: An estimated 1,980 deaths from thyroid cancer are
New cases: An estimated 76,960 new cases of bladder cancer are
expected in 2016. expected to occur in 2016. Bladder cancer incidence is about 4 times higher in men than in women and almost 2 times higher in Mortality trends: Death rates for thyroid cancer were stable from
white men than in black men. 2003 to 2012.
Incidence trends: After decades of slowly increasing, bladder
Signs and symptoms: The most common symptom of thyroid
cancer incidence has begun to decline. From 2003 to 2012, rates cancer is a lump in the neck that is noticed by a patient or felt by decreased by 0.5% per year.
a clinician during an exam. Other symptoms include a tight or full feeling in the neck, difficulty breathing or swallowing, Deaths: An estimated 16,390 deaths will occur in 2016.
hoarseness, swollen lymph nodes, and pain in the throat or neck Mortality trends: Death rates for urinary bladder cancer have
that does not go away. Many thyroid cancers are diagnosed in been stable since 1987 in men and decreasing by 0.4% per year people without symptoms because an abnormality is seen on an since 1986 in women.
imaging test performed for another purpose.
22 Cancer Facts & Figures 2016
Signs and symptoms: Bladder cancer is usually detected early
Mortality trends: Like incidence, the cervical cancer death rate
because of blood in the urine or other symptoms, including in 2012 (2.3 per 100,000) was less than half that in 1975 (5.6 per increased frequency or urgency of urination or pain or irritation 100,000) due to declines in incidence and the early detection of during urination.
cancer with the Pap test. However, the magnitude of the decline has begun to slow in recent years in women of all ages, indicat- Risk factors: Smoking is the most well-established risk factor
ing that rates may be approaching a lower limit; from 2003 to for bladder cancer, accounting for about half of all cases. Risk is 2012, the death rate decreased by 0.9% per year.
also increased among workers in the dye, rubber, leather, and aluminum industries; painters; people who live in communities Signs and symptoms: Preinvasive cervical lesions often have
with high levels of arsenic in the drinking water; and people no symptoms. Once abnormal cervical cells become cancerous with certain bladder birth defects.
and invade nearby tissue, the most common symptom is abnor-mal vaginal bleeding, which may start and stop between regular Early detection: There is currently no screening method rec-
menstrual periods or occur after sexual intercourse, douching, ommended for people at average risk. Bladder cancer is or a pelvic exam. Menstrual bleeding may last longer and be diagnosed by microscopic examination of cells from urine or heavier than usual. Bleeding after menopause and increased bladder tissue and examination of the bladder wall with a cysto- vaginal discharge may also be symptoms.
scope, a slender tube fitted with a lens and light that is inserted through the urethra. These and other tests may be used to screen Risk factors: Most cervical cancers are caused by persistent
people at increased risk, as well as during follow-up after blad- infection with certain types of human papillomavirus (HPV). der cancer treatment to detect recurrent or new tumors.
While women who begin having sex at an early age or who have had many sexual partners are at increased risk for HPV infec- Treatment: Surgery, alone or in combination with other treat-
tion and cervical cancer, a woman may be infected with HPV ments, is used in more than 90% of cases. Early stage cancers even if she has had only one sexual partner. In fact, HPV infec- may be treated by removing the tumor and then administering tions are common in healthy women and only rarely cause immunotherapy or chemotherapy drugs directly into the blad- cervical cancer. Both persistence of HPV infection and progres- der. More advanced cancers may require removal of the entire sion to cancer may be influenced by many factors, including a bladder (cystectomy). Patient outcomes are improved with the suppressed immune system, a high number of childbirths, and use of chemotherapy, alone or with radiation, before cystectomy. cigarette smoking. Long-term use of oral contraceptives (birth Timely follow-up care is extremely important because of the control pills) is also associated with increased risk of cervical high rate of bladder cancer recurrence.
Survival: For all stages combined, the 5-year relative survival
Prevention: Vaccines are available to protect against the most
rate is 77%. Survival declines to 70% at 10 years and 65% at 15 common types of HPV that cause cervical cancer. Vaccination is years after diagnosis. Half of all bladder cancer patients are recommended for use in girls 11 to 12 years of age, but may be diagnosed while the tumor is in situ (noninvasive, present only given as young as age 9 and up to age 26. HPV vaccines cannot in the layer of cells in which the cancer developed), for which the protect against established infections, nor do they protect 5-year survival is 96%. against all types of HPV, which is why vaccinated women should still be screened for cervical cancer.
Screening can prevent cervical cancer by detecting precancer- New cases: An estimated 12,990 cases of invasive cervical can-
ous lesions that can be treated so they do not progress to cancer. cer are expected to be diagnosed in 2016. As screening has become more common, precancerous lesions Incidence trends: The cervical cancer incidence rate declined
of the cervix are detected far more frequently than invasive can- by half between 1975 (14.8 per 100,000) and 2012 (6.7 per 100,000) cer. The Pap test is a simple procedure in which a small sample due to the widespread uptake of screening with the Pap test and of cells is collected from the cervix and examined under a micro- removal of precancerous lesions. However, declines in younger scope. HPV tests, which detect HPV infections associated with women have begun to slow in recent years. From 2008 to 2012, cervical cancer, can forecast cervical cancer risk many years in incidence rates stabilized in women younger than 50 years of the future and are currently recommended to be used in con- age and decreased by 3.0% per year among in women 50 or older.
junction with the Pap test in some women, either as an additional screening test or when Pap test results are uncertain. HPV tests Deaths: An estimated 4,120 deaths from cervical cancer will
can also identify women at risk for an uncommon type of cervi- cal cancer (adenocarcinoma) that is often missed by Pap tests. Cancer Facts & Figures 2016 23
Most cervical precancers develop slowly, so cancer can usually Incidence trends: Incidence rates have been increasing among
be prevented if a woman is screened regularly. It is important for women younger than 50 years of age by 1.3% per year since 1988 all women, even those who have received the HPV vaccine, to and among women 50 and older by 1.9% per year since 2005.
follow cervical cancer screening guidelines.
Deaths: An estimated 10,470 deaths are expected in 2016.
Early detection: In addition to preventing cervical cancer,
Mortality trends: From 2003 to 2012, death rates for cancer of
screening can detect invasive cancer early, when treatment is the uterine corpus increased by 1.1% per year.
most likely to be successful. Most women diagnosed with cervi-cal cancer have never or not recently been screened. The Signs and symptoms: Abnormal uterine bleeding or spotting
American Cancer Society, in collaboration with the American (especially in postmenopausal women) is a frequent early sign. Society for Colposcopy and Cervical Pathology and the Ameri- Pain during urination, intercourse, or in the pelvic area can also can Society for Clinical Pathology, issued new screening be a symptom.
guidelines for the prevention and early detection of cervical can- Risk factors: Obesity and abdominal fatness increase the risk of
cer in 2012. The most important changes to the guidelines were uterine cancer, most likely by increasing the amount of circulat- the age range for which screening is appropriate (ages 21 to 65) ing estrogen, which is a strong risk factor. Other factors that and the emphasis on the incorporation of HPV testing in addi- increase estrogen exposure include menopausal estrogen ther- tion to the Pap test (for ages 30 to 65). For more detailed apy, late menopause, never having children, and a history of information on the American Cancer Society's screening guide- polycystic ovary syndrome. (Estrogen plus progestin meno- lines for the early detection of cervical cancer, se.
pausal hormone therapy does not appear to increase risk.) Treatment: Precancerous cervical lesions may be treated with a
Tamoxifen, a drug used to treat breast cancer, increases risk loop electrosurgical excision procedure (LEEP), which removes slightly because it has estrogen-like effects on the uterus. Medi- abnormal tissue with a wire loop heated by electric current; cal conditions that increase risk include Lynch syndrome and cryotherapy (the destruction of cells by extreme cold); laser abla- diabetes. Pregnancy, use of oral contraceptives or intrauterine tion (removal of tissue); or conization (the removal of a devices, and physical activity are associated with reduced risk.
cone-shaped piece of tissue containing the abnormal tissue). Early detection: There is no standard or routine screening test
Invasive cervical cancers are generally treated with surgery or for women at average risk. Most cases (67%) are diagnosed at an radiation combined with chemotherapy. Chemotherapy alone is early stage because of postmenopausal bleeding. Women are often used to treat advanced disease. However, for women with encouraged to report any unexpected bleeding or spotting to metastatic, recurrent, or persistent cervical cancer, the addition their physicians. The American Cancer Society recommends of targeted therapy to standard chemotherapy has been shown that women with known or suspected Lynch syndrome be to improve overall survival.
offered annual screening with endometrial biopsy and/or trans- Survival: Five- and 10-year relative survival rates for cervical
vaginal ultrasound beginning at age 35.
cancer patients are 68% and 64%, respectively. Almost half of Treatment: Uterine cancers are usually treated with surgery,
patients (46%) are diagnosed when the cancer is localized, for radiation, hormones, and/or chemotherapy, depending on the which the 5-year survival is 92% (Table 8). stage of disease.
Uterine Corpus (Endometrium)
Survival: The 5- and 10-year relative survival rates for uterine
cancer are 82% and 79%, respectively. The 5-year survival is sub-
New cases: An estimated 60,050 cases of cancer of the uterine
stantially higher for whites (84%) than for blacks (62%). This is corpus (body of the uterus) are expected to be diagnosed in 2016. partly because white women are more likely than black women Cancer of the uterine corpus is often referred to as endometrial to be diagnosed with local stage disease (69% versus 53%). cancer because most cases (92%) occur in the endometrium (lin-ing of the uterus).
24 Cancer Facts & Figures 2016
Special Section: Cancer in Asian Americans,
Native Hawaiians, and Pacific Islanders
The largest Asian subpopulation in the US is Chinese (23%), fol-lowed by Filipino (20%), Asian Indian (18%), Vietnamese (10%), Asian Americans are the fastest-growing racial/ethnic group in Korean (10%), Japanese (8%), and 2% or less for Pakistani, Cambo- the US, representing 6.3% of the population (20.0 million/318.7 dian, Hmong, and other groups.4 The largest NHPI subpopulation million) in 2014.1 In contrast to Hispanics, the rapid growth of is Native Hawaiian (43%), followed by Samoan (15%), Guamanian the Asian American population is driven by immigration as or Chamorro (12%), and Tongan (5%).3 Ten US states are home to opposed to native births.2 The Native Hawaiian and Pacific 73% of the overall AANHPI population (Figure S1); California Islander (NHPI) population (1.5 million) is also among the fastest- has the largest population with 32%, followed by New York (9%), growing groups.1, 3 The term Asian refers to people with origins Texas (7%), Hawaii (5%), and New Jersey (5%). Notably, AANHPIs in the Far East, Southeast Asia, or the Indian subcontinent and comprise 71% and 15% of the total population in Hawaii and includes, but is not limited to, Asian Indian, Cambodian, Chinese, California, respectively. AANHPI populations are generally con- Filipino, Hmong, Japanese, Korean, Pakistani, and Vietnamese.4 centrated in urban areas.
The term NHPI refers to people with origins in Hawaii, Guam, Samoa, or other Pacific Islands.3 According to the US Census, a person may be Asian American or NHPI alone or in combination with other races.3, 4 While Asian Americans and NHPIs are distinct AANHPI subgroups have highly heterogeneous demographic racial groups with very different cancer profiles, unfortunately characteristics. For example, the median age among the largest demographic and health data are usually available only in aggre- subgroups ranges from 22 in Hmong to 37 in Japanese (Table S1, gate. These two groups are collectively referred to as Asian . Some groups are largely composed of native-born US American, Native Hawaiian, and Pacific Islander (AANHPI), Asian citizens, such as Native Hawaiians (98%), Samoans (91%), and American and Pacific Islander (AAPI), or Asian and Pacific Japanese (75%), while others are more likely to be foreign-born, such as Asian Indians (68%). Longer duration in the US is gener-ally associated with the adoption of an American lifestyle, which can influence the prevalence of cancer risk factors, such as Figure S1. AANHPI Population by State, 2013
smoking and excess body weight.5, 6 In addition, the ability to access preventive and health care services can be hampered by language barriers.7 About 50% of Vietnamese and 40% of Chinese, Koreans, Cambodians, and Hmong report speaking a language other than English at home and speaking English less than "very well" (Table S1, The variation in socioeconomic status between AANHPI sub-groups is striking.8 For example, more than one-third of Japanese, Filipinos, and Asian Indians have a bachelor's degree or higher and only about 5% live in poverty, compared to 12% and 20%, respectively, of Cambodians and Hmong (Table S1 Overall cancer statistics
Cancer patterns in AANHPIs are more similar to Hispanics than NHWs, with lower rates for the most common cancers and higher rates for cancers associated with infectious agents. How-ever, cancer rates within the AANHPI population vary by AANHPI = Asian American, Native Hawai an, and Pacific Islander.
immigration history, origin, acculturation, and socioeconomic Source: US Census Bureau Population Estimates Program, modified in
col aboration with the National Center for Health Statistics with support from status. For example, lung cancer incidence rates range from 21.1 the National Cancer Institute, accessed through Surveil ance, Epidemiology, (per 100,000) in Asian Indian/Pakistani men to 98.9 in Samoan and End Results (SEER) Program, 2015.
men; these distinctions are masked in aggregated statistics.
American Cancer Society, Inc., Surveil ance Research, 2016 Cancer Facts & Figures 2016 25
Table S1. Sociodemographic Characteristics of AANHPIs by Subgroup, 2011-2013
Nativity and citizenship (%) Foreign-born, naturalized citizen Foreign-born, not a citizen Average household size (n of persons) Language spoken at home and English-speaking ability (%) Only English spoken at home Non-English at home Non-English at home, English spoken less than "very wel " Per capita income ($) Educational attainment (%) Less than high school graduate High school graduate Some col ege or associate's degree Bachelor's degree or higher AANHPI = Asian American, Native Hawai an, and Pacific Islander.
Source: US Census Bureau, 2011-2013 3-Year American Community Survey.
American Cancer Society, Inc., Surveil ance Research, 2016 Cancer is the leading cause of death among AANHPIs, accounting Overall cancer incidence rates declined from 2003 to 2012 (the for 27% of all deaths (Table S2. Among non-Hispanic most recent 10 years for which data are currently available) whites, heart disease remains the leading cause of death, followed among AANHPI males by 1.9% annually, compared with declines by cancer. However, the cancer death rate in AANHPIs (104.2 per of 1.5% annually among NHW males.9 During the same period, 100,000) is about 40% lower than that in NHWs (170.2).
incidence rates remained stable among both AANHPI and NHW females (Figure S5. However, mortality rates during The lifetime probability of developing cancer among AANHPIs is this period declined among both AANHPI males and females by 36% in males and 33% in females (Table S3, compared 1.5% and 0.8% annually, respectively, similar to the declines in to 42% and 38% in NHW males and females, respectively. In 2016, NHWs.10 Trends in cancer occurrence among Asian Americans an estimated 57,740 new cancer cases and 16,910 cancer deaths are influenced not only by the risk factor profiles of those living will occur among AANHPIs. According to these estimates, the in the US, but also by the influx of immigrants.
most commonly diagnosed cancers among males are prostate (18%), lung (14%), and colorectum (12%) (Figure S2). Overall five-year cancer survival among AANHPIs compared Among females, the most common cancers are breast (34%), thy- with NHWs is lower for males (62% versus 68%) and similar for roid (10%), and lung (9%). The three leading causes of cancer females (70% versus 68%; Figure S6, ). Survival is notably death are lung (27%), liver (14%), and colorectum (11%) among higher among AANHPIs for stomach, liver, and naso pharyngeal males, and lung (21%), breast (14%), and colorectum (11%) among cancers, while it is similar for other major cancer sites (Figure S6, . Survival statistics for minority groups in the US are particularly influenced by incomplete follow-up of cancer As mentioned previously, there is substantial variation in cancer patients due to lost contact or inability to link to death registries, occurrence among AANHPI subgroups. For both males and artificially inflating rates by as much as 6 percentage points females, Samoans and Native Hawaiians have the highest over- among Asian Americans.11 Lost contact of cancer patients is all cancer incidence rates, while Asian Indians and Pakistanis sometimes the result of terminally ill people returning to their (grouped together) and Cambodians have the lowest rates (Fig- country of origin. As a result, comparisons of survival between racial/ethnic groups should be interpreted with caution.
26 Cancer Facts & Figures 2016
Data limitations
The data presented in this report have several limitations and
Second, much of the demographic information in health records, should be interpreted with caution. First, data are limited for racial such as place of birth and racial/ethnic identity, is often incorrect and ethnic subpopulations, so many statistics are presented for or incomplete for minority patients. This can occur when infor- Asian Americans, Native Hawai ans, and Pacific Islanders in aggre- mation is assigned by a health care worker instead of obtained gate, masking important differences within this heterogeneous directly from the patient or their family. The resulting misclas- group. For example, cancer risk factor data are only available for sification leads to inaccurate, often underestimated cancer rates. the three largest AANHPI subgroups (Chinese, Filipino, and Asian Similarly, it has been shown that a small percentage of decedents Indian) because estimates for other groups are unreliable due to who had self-reported as AANHPIs were not recorded as such on insufficient representation in national population-based surveys; death certificates. The standard US death certificate was revised in questionnaires only in English or limited Asian languages may 2003 to include several AANHPI subgroups and had been adopted also exclude some Asian Americans. NHPIs in particular have very by 44 states in 2012. This change will improve the availability of distinct cancer risk profiles that are obscured when combined with disaggregated death data for AANHPIs, although issues of mis- Asian Americans. Increasing recognition of the need to improve classification will likely persist. health information for AANHPIs led the US Department of Health Third, there are chal enges when calculating statistics for racial/ & Human Services to develop new standards for col ecting data ethnic subgroups, especial y those that are rapidly growing and on race and ethnicity that will al ow for more data reporting for changing. For example, population size, which is necessary for the largest AANHPI subgroups in the future. In addition, data from computing rates, is often difficult to estimate. Also, rates for sub- the first NHPI National Health Interview Survey are forthcoming. populations that are based on small numbers may be unreliable.
For information on data sources and methodology, please see Sources of Statistics on Major cancer sites
increased by 1.1% annually.9 Reasons for this increase are thought to include changes in factors such as body weight and repro- ductive patterns following immigration and acculturation.12, 16 Breast cancer is the most commonly diagnosed cancer and the Recent uptake of mammography screening among Asian Amer- second leading cause of cancer death among AANHPI women, icans may also have contributed.12, 17, 18 Increases in incidence of with a total of 11,090 new invasive cases and 1,180 deaths in situ breast cancers among AANHPIs since 1992 are consis- expected to occur in 2016 (Figure S2, ). About one in 10 tent with increased screening.19 Breast cancer mortality rates AANHPI women will be diagnosed with breast cancer in her life- decreased by 1.4% annually from 2003 to 2012 among AANHPI time (Table S3. Age-standardized breast cancer women and by 1.9% annually among NHWs.10 These reductions incidence and mortality rates are 30% and 50% lower, respec- have been attributed to improvements in both treatment and tively, than those in NHWs (Figure S3). There is early detection.20 substantial variation in breast cancer occurrence within the The stage at breast cancer diagnosis is similar in AANHPIs and AANHPI population, with lower rates among groups that have NHWs (Figure S8, ), although the overall 5-year cause- immigrated more recently. Incidence rates range from 35.0 (per specific survival is slightly higher among AANHPI women 100,000) in Cambodian women to 135.9 in Native Hawaiian (Figure S6, . However, there are some notable differ- women (Figure S4, . These differences are thought to ences in survival by nativity and between AANHPI subgroups. A be related to extent of adoption of western behaviors that study in California showed that compared with foreign-born increase breast cancer risk, such as a later age at childbirth, women, those who are US-born are more likely to be diagnosed fewer births, and higher body weight.12 A California study found with breast cancer at a localized stage and have higher survival breast cancer rates to be generally higher among US-born com- after adjusting for stage and other prognostic factors.21 Com- pared to foreign-born Asian American women.13 Breast cancer pared to NHWs, survival rates are higher in Japanese but lower incidence rates in AANHPI countries of origin are generally sub- in NHPIs.22 Factors thought to contribute to the Japanese sur- stantially lower than in the US;14 however, in many Asian vival advantage include lower body weight and healthy diet.22, 23 countries, risk among recent generations is approaching that in Differences in survival between Asian American subgroups may also reflect biological differences in tumor characteristics;24 a Breast cancer incidence rates among AANHPI women have been study in California showed differing prevalence of breast cancer increasing gradually since 2005 (Figure S7). From 2003 subtypes, each with distinct treatment needs and prognosis, to 2012, in contrast to stable rates in NHWs, rates in AANHPIs among Asian American subgroups.25 Cancer Facts & Figures 2016 27
Table S2. Leading Causes of Death among AANHPIs and NHWs, US, 2012
Asian American, Native Hawaiian,
and Pacific Islander
of deaths
of deaths
Cerebrovascular diseases Accidents (unintentional injuries) Influenza and pneumonia Chronic lower respiratory diseases Alzheimer's disease Nephritis, nephrotic syndrome & nephrosis All causes
AANHPI = Asian American, Native Hawai an, and Pacific Islander. NHW = Non-Hispanic white. Rates are per 100,000 and age-adjusted to the 2000 US standard population.
Source: US Mortality Data, National Center for Health Statistics, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2015.
American Cancer Society, Inc., Surveil ance Research, 2016 Lung and bronchus S9, ).19 From 2003 to 2012, incidence and death rates Among AANHPIs, an estimated 3,460 men and 3,030 women decreased in men by about 2% annually among AANHPIs and by will be diagnosed with lung cancer in 2016 (Figure S2). Lung about 2.5% annually among NHWs.9, 10 Among AANHPI women, cancer is the leading cause of cancer death among both men and incidence rates were stable while death rates declined by 0.5% women. Although incidence and mortality are roughly half that per year; in contrast, among NHW women, incidence and death among NHWs, risk varies substantially by subgroup (Figure S3, rates decreased by about 1% annually.9, 10 . The highest lung cancer incidence rate in men is in AANHPIs are more likely than NHWs to be diagnosed with lung Samoans (98.9 per 100,000), followed by Native Hawaiians (72.1) cancer at a distant stage of disease (58% versus 52%; Figure S8, and Vietnamese (62.7), while Asians Indians/Pakistanis have ); however, five-year cause-specific survival is similar the lowest rate (21.1) (Figure S4). The highest rate in (Figure S6, . AANHPIs and NHWs are equally likely to AANHPI women is in Native Hawaiians (44.0), followed closely receive appropriate treatment for lung cancer.32 The reasons for by Samoans (41.8), with the lowest rate also in Asian Indians/ the roughly equivalent survival in AANHPIs given later stage at Pakistanis (10.2). diagnosis are unknown, but may include genetic and/or cultural In the US, smoking causes 83% and 76% of all lung cancer deaths factors32 or loss of patient contact.
among men and women, respectively.26 Data on historical trends in smoking prevalence for AANHPIs are scarce. A survey of smoking status in 2002–2005 found that 42% and 27% of NHPI Among AANHPIs, an estimated 2,990 men and 2,720 women men and women, respectively, were current smokers compared will be diagnosed with colorectal cancer in 2016 (Figure S2). It is to 21% and 4% of Indian/Pakistani men women.27 Notably, lung the third leading cause of cancer death among both AANHPI cancer rates among Chinese women in both Asia and the US are men and women. Incidence and death rates are 20% lower and relatively high given the low prevalence of smoking in this group. 30% lower, respectively, compared to NHWs (Figure S3 This may be attributable to exposure to cooking oils at high However, within AANHPI subgroups, colorectal cancer incidence heat, secondhand smoke, genetic susceptibility, or other rates are about three times higher in Japanese than in Asian unknown risk factors.28-31 Indians/Pakistanis (Figure S4, . Higher incidence rates among US-born compared to foreign-born Chinese and Filipi- Since the early 1990s, when data became available, lung cancer nos in a California study are likely due to a higher prevalence of occurrence has been decreasing among AANHPI men and behaviors associated with colorectal cancer risk, such as relatively stable among women (Figure S7, nd Figure unhealthy diet, physical inactivity, and smoking.33 28 Cancer Facts & Figures 2016
Figure S2. Leading Sites of New Cancer Cases and Deaths among AANHPIs – 2016 Estimates
Estimated New Cases
Liver & intrahepatic bile duct Liver & intrahepatic bile duct Non-Hodgkin lymphoma Liver & intrahepatic bile duct Non-Hodgkin lymphoma Kidney & renal pelvis Oral cavity & pharynx Non-Hodgkin lymphoma Liver & intrahepatic bile duct Kidney & renal pelvis Oral cavity & pharynx Non-Hodgkin lymphoma AANHPI = Asian American, Native Hawai an, and Pacific Islander. Estimates are rounded to the nearest 10, and cases exclude basal cell and squamous cell skin cancers and in situ carcinoma except urinary bladder. 2016, American Cancer Society, Inc., Surveil ance Research Table S3. Probability (%) of Developing Invasive Cancer among AANHPIs during Selected Age Intervals by Sex,
US, 2010-2012*
Birth to 49
70 and older
Birth to death
Liver & intrahepatic bile duct <0.1 (1 in 2,828) AANHPI = Asian American, Native Hawai an, and Pacific Islander. *For those free of cancer at beginning of each age interval. †Al sites excludes basal and squamous cel
skin cancers and in situ cancers except urinary bladder.
Source: DevCan: Probability of Developing or Dying of Cancer Software, Version 6.7.3. Statistical Research and Applications Branch, National Cancer Institute, 2015.
.
American Cancer Society, Inc., Surveil ance Research, 2016 Cancer Facts & Figures 2016 29
among Japanese was primarily due to sociodemographic fac- Figure S3. Rate Ratios Comparing AANHPIs
tors, but also reflected specific disease characteristics.37 (numerator) with NHWs (denominator), 2008-2012
Prostate cancer is the most commonly diagnosed cancer and the fifth-leading cause of cancer death among AANHPI men, with 4,550 new cases and 520 deaths estimated in 2016 (Figure S2, . Incidence and mortality rates are 50% lower in AANHPIs than in NHWs (Figure S3). However, incidence rates vary by three-fold among subgroups, with rates of about 30 per 100,000 among Cambodians and Laotians compared to 100 or more among Japanese, Filipinos, Native Hawaiians, and Samo- ans (Figure S4). Colon & Lung and Prostate Prostate cancer incidence rates peaked among AANHPIs in the early 1990s, followed by a steady decline (Figure S7, This peak is largely due to the rapid uptake of prostate-specific antigen (PSA) testing.38 Prostate cancer death rates have been generally declining among AANHPIs since 1993 (Figure S9, , similar to NHWs. These declines are attributed to early detection and improvements in treatment, although the relative contribution of each is debated.39, 40 NHW men are more likely to be diagnosed with prostate cancer at the localized stage than AANHPI men (79% versus 74%; Fig- ure S8, but 5-year cause-specific survival is roughly the same in both groups (Figure S6 Naso- Stomach Liver* Thyroid Uterine Colon & Breast Cancer sites with higher rates
AANHPI = Asian American, Native Hawai an, and Pacific Islander. NHW = Non-Hispanic white. *Includes intrahepatic bile duct. Sources: Incidence– NAACCR, 2015. Mortality– National Center for Health
Statistics, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2015.
While AANHPIs generally have lower cancer rates than NHWs American Cancer Society, Inc., Surveil ance Research, 2016 overall and for the most common cancers, they are at higher risk for stomach, liver, cervical (some subgroups), and nasopharyn-geal cancers, which are associated with infections. The percentage From 2003 to 2012, colorectal cancer incidence rates decreased of cancers attributable to infection in Asia ranges from 17% in by 2.6% annually among AANHPI males and females, slightly central Asia to 26% in China, compared to 4% in North America.41 lower than declines of 3.8% and 3.2% among NHW males and The risk of infection-related cancers among AANHPIs in the US is females, respectively (Figure S7, ).9 Mortality rates particularly high among first-generation immigrants.42 In addi- declined during this time period in AANHPIs by 1.1% and 1.3% tion to infection-related cancers, some AANHPI subgroups have annually in men and women, respectively.10 Long-term declines a higher risk of thyroid cancer.
in incidence and death rates are attributed to changing patterns in risk factors, the uptake of screening, and improved treat- ments.34, 35 However, the aggregation of AANHPIs likely masks Stomach cancer incidence and death rates are about twice as differences in trends by subgroup. For example, a California high in AANHPIs as in NHWs (Figure S3). Among AANHPIs, an study documented increasing colorectal cancer incidence rates estimated 980 men and 820 women will be diagnosed with stom- in Koreans, Filipinos, and South Asians between 1988 and 2007.36 ach cancer in 2016 (Figure S2. Incidence is particularly AANHPIs have slightly higher 5-year colorectal cancer-specific high among Koreans, with rates of 38.5 per 100,000 among males survival rates than NHWs (Figure S6. However, one and 22.3 among females, roughly twice as high as those among study found differences in outcomes between subgroups, with Japanese, who have the second highest rates (Figure S4). Stomach the highest survival among Japanese and Asian Indians/Paki- cancer rates in Korea are the highest in the world for both males stanis, while rates in other groups were similar to those in NHWs.32 Another study found that the survival advantage 30 Cancer Facts & Figures 2016
Figure S4. Cancer Incidence Rates* by Sex and AANHPI Subgroup, 2006-2010
All Sites
Lung & bronchus
Colon & rectum
All Sites
Lung & bronchus
Colon & rectum
AANHPI = Asian American, Native Hawai an, and Pacific Islander. NHW = Non-Hispanic white. Rates are age adjusted to the 2000 US standard population. *Rates based on <25 cases are omitted. †Includes intrahepatic bile duct. Please note that cancer sites are presented on different scales.
Source: Surveil ance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) Program, SEER 11 registries plus Greater California and New Jersey, National Cancer Institute, 2013.
American Cancer Society, Inc., Surveil ance Research, 2016 Cancer Facts & Figures 2016 31
Figure S5. Trends in Incidence and Mortality Rates for All Cancers Combined among NHWs and AANHPIs, 1990-2012
Asian Americans, Native Hawaiians,
and Pacific Islanders
1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 AANHPI = Asian American, Native Hawai an, and Pacific Islander. NHW = Non-Hispanic white. Rates are age adjusted to the 2000 US standard population.
Sources: Incidence- Surveil ance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) Program, SEER 13 registries, National Cancer Institute, 2015. Mortality- US Mortality Data, National
Center for Health Statistics, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2015.
American Cancer Society, Inc., Surveil ance Research, 2016 The bacterium Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) is the strongest risk factor for stomach cancer, accounting for the majority of cases Liver cancer is one of the most fatal cancers, and incidence and worldwide.43, 44 Other risk factors are thought to include dietary death rates among AANHPIs are about twice as high as those in patterns, food storage and preservation practices, and low con- NHWs (Figure S3). Among AANHPIs, an estimated sumption of fresh produce.45 Stomach cancer rates have been 1,760 men and 830 women will be diagnosed with liver cancer in declining in the US since the early 20th century, and have also 2016 (Figure S2, ). It is the second-leading cause of can- been declining more recently in Asian countries with histori- cer death among AANHPI men and the fifth-leading cause of cally high rates, such as Japan, Korea, and China.46 These cancer death among AANHPI women. Liver cancer rates are declines are thought to be due to improved availability of fresh particularly elevated in Laotians, Vietnamese, and Cambodians, fruits and vegetables, lower consumption of salt-preserved likely due to a high prevalence of hepatitis B virus (HBV) infec- foods, and reduced prevalence of H. pylori infection through tion in their country of origin and more recent immigration improved sanitation and antibiotic treatment.47 Decreases in (Figure S4, ).28, 50 smoking may have also contributed to the declines.48 Stomach cancer rates have been steadily declining among AANHPIs Chronic infection with HBV or hepatitis C virus (HCV) is the (Figure S7, and Figure S9), with annual decreases strongest risk factor for hepatocellular carcinoma, the most during 2003 to 2012 of about 3% to 4% for both incidence and common type of liver cancer.51 Other risk factors in Asian and Pacific Island nations include certain toxins and parasitic infec-tions.52 Risk factors more common in developed countries AANHPIs are more likely than NHWs to be diagnosed with include obesity, diabetes, alcoholic liver disease, and tobacco stomach cancer at a localized or regional stage (Figure S8 smoking. Risk factor prevalence varies both between and within , possibly because of awareness of the higher risk among AANHPI subgroups. For example, a study of Asian immigrants Asian Americans and/or recommendations by some medical in New York City found that those born in Fujian Province, societies for screening among Asian immigrants.49 Likely due to China, were more likely to have HBV infection than those born earlier diagnosis, AANHPIs have higher 5-year survival than in other Chinese provinces.53 NHWs, 40% versus 28% in males and 38% versus 34% in females (Figure S6).
32 Cancer Facts & Figures 2016
Figure S6. Five-year Cause-specific Survival (%)
Thyroid cancer is estimated to be the second most frequently by Sex and Site for AANHPIs and NHWs, 2005-2011
diagnosed cancer among AANHPI females in 2016, with 3,320 new cases diagnosed (Figure S2. However, it is not a leading cause of cancer death because survival is very high (Fig- ure S6). The high ranking of thyroid cancer among AANHPIs is driven by elevated rates among Filipinos, the second largest AANHPI population, and the relatively low rates of most other cancers. Incidence rates per 100,000 among Filipino women are 23.7 compared with 21.0 among NHW women (Figure S4, ). Thyroid cancer incidence rates in AANHPIs as a group are slightly lower than those in NHWs, although mortality rates are slightly higher among females, 0.8 per 100,000 versus 0.5 (Figure S3, . AANHPIs are less likely than NHWs to be diagnosed with thyroid cancer at a localized stage, 60% versus 69% (Figure S8, ), despite a similar 5-year survival rate of about 95% (Figure S6). The reasons for the elevated rates in Filipinos are not well understood, but are thought to include dietary or environmental factors.57 Figure S7. Trends in Cancer Incidence Rates among
AANHPIs by Site and Sex, 1992-2012
AANHPI = Asian American, Native Hawai an, and Pacific Islander. NHW = Non-Hispanic white. *Includes intrahepatic bile duct. Source: Surveil ance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) Program,
SEER 18 registries, National Cancer Institute, 2015.
American Cancer Society, Inc., Surveil ance Research, 2016 Liver cancer is one of the few cancers for which incidence and mortality trends differ in AANHPIs and NHWs. While it is among the most rapidly increasing cancers among NHWs, inci- dence rates among both male and female AANHPIs have been stable since the early 1990s (Figure S7).19 Moreover, death rates increased among NHWs by 2.9% and 2.1% per year in men and 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 women, respectively, from 2003 to 2012, in contrast to down- ward trends among AANHPI men (0.9% annually) and stable trends in AANHPI women.10 The increasing rates among NHWs are thought to be due to increased prevalence of chronic infec- tion with HCV as a result of exposure to contaminated blood or medical equipment and injection drug use during the 1960s and 1970s, and possibly increases in obesity and type 2 diabetes more recently.54 Cultural awareness of HBV screening and treat- ment among AANHPIs, who have historically had the highest liver cancer rates in the US, may be driving the declining mortal- AANHPIs are more likely than NHWs to be diagnosed with liver 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 cancer at a localized stage (46% versus 42%; Figure S8 nd also have higher five-year survival rates (Figure S6). Rates are age adjusted to the 2000 US standard population. *Includes intrahepatic bile duct.
Better survival among AANHPIs may be due to earlier stage at Source: Surveil ance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) Program, SEER 13
diagnosis, differences in receipt of treatment, and/or other registries, National Cancer Institute, 2015.
underlying risk factors, such as cirrhosis.55, 56 American Cancer Society, Inc., Surveil ance Research, 2016 Cancer Facts & Figures 2016 33
Figure S8. Age-adjusted Stage Distribution for Selected Cancers among AANHPIs and NHWs, 2008-2012
AANHPI = Asian Americans, Native Hawai ans, and Pacific Islanders. NHW = Non-Hispanic whites. Based on rates age adjusted to the 2000 US standard population. *Includes intrahepatic bile duct.
Source: Surveil ance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) Program, SEER 18 registries, National Cancer Institute, 2015.
American Cancer Society, Inc., Surveil ance Research, 2016 Thyroid cancer incidence rates have been increasing by more second half of the 20th century, including those since 1990 than 5% annually over the past 10 years of data among both among Vietnamese, Cambodian, and Laotian women, are attrib- AANHPIs and NHWs (Figure S7, 9 The increasing uted primarily to increased screening.65 incidence is thought to be partially due to increased detection Incidence and death rates among AANHPIs decreased by about because of more sensitive diagnostic procedures and increased 3% annually during the past 10 years of data, while incidence use of imaging, although incidental detection of thyroid tumors rates decreased slightly and mortality rates remained stable in is unlikely to completely account for these trends.58, 59 Increases NHW women.9, 10 AANHPI women are less likely than NHW across demographic and socioeconomic groups, as well as for women to be diagnosed with cervical cancer at a localized stage larger and later-stage tumors, also implicate environmental fac- (43% versus 51%), although five-year survival is about 70% for tors.60 Further research is needed to identify risk factors that both groups (Figures S6, and S8).
may be causing these trends. Nasopharynx Nasopharyngeal carcinoma, which is the dominant form of Cervical cancer incidence rates are higher in several AANHPI nasopharyngeal cancer, is rare worldwide, although it has ele- subgroups than in NHWs (Figure S4, despite being vated incidence in certain regions and populations, including lower overall (Figure S3). Incidence rates (per 100,000) southern China and southeastern Asia.47 (The nasopharynx is are twice as high in Cambodians (12.7) as in NHWs (6.8), and the upper part of the throat, behind the nose.) Incidence rates 40% higher among Vietnamese women (9.5). In contrast, rates among AANHPIs overall are about 5 to 6 times higher than among Chinese (4.5) and Asian Indian/Pakistani (4.2) women among NHWs (Figure S3, and are particularly ele- are lower than those in NHWs. vated for men in certain subpopulations, including Chinese, Contemporary disparities in cervical cancer incidence world- Samoans, Guamanians/Chamorros, and Hmong.66-69 Nasopha- wide are attributable to differences in the prevalence of both ryngeal carcinoma is thought to be caused by a combination of human papillomavirus (HPV) infection, the cause of cervical viral, environmental, and genetic factors.70 It has been estimated cancer, and screening.61-64 The Pap test has historically been the that about 98% of nasopharyngeal carcinoma cases worldwide mainstay for screening in the US and can detect precancerous are related to infection with Epstein-Barr virus (EBV),47 although lesions of the cervix that can be treated to prevent cancer. The only a small fraction of people who are infected with EBV rapid declines in cervical cancer occurrence in the US over the develop the disease. Other environmental risk factors include 34 Cancer Facts & Figures 2016
Prevalence of cancer risk factors
Figure S9. Trends in Cancer Mortality Rates among
AANHPIs by Site and Sex, 1990-2012
A large proportion of cancers are caused by known risk factors, such as tobacco use, excess body weight, and certain infectious agents.77, 78 Prevalence of these risk factors within the AANHPI population sheds light on the unique cancer burden in this group as a whole, as well as differences between subgroups.
Smoking among AANHPIs varies by sex, nativity, acculturation, and ethnicity. Overall, 10% of Asian Americans smoked in 2014, compared with 19% of NHWs (Table S4, . National smoking estimates are not available for NHPIs. In Hawaii, where 55% of US Native Hawaiians reside, 27% of Native Hawaiians report being current smokers.79 While similar percentages of 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 NHW men (20%) and women (18%) are current smokers, Asian American men (14%) are more than twice as likely to smoke as Asian American women (6%). However, while US-born and for- eign-born Asian American men are equally likely to be current smokers, among women, the US-born are five times more likely to smoke – 16% versus 3% of the foreign-born. These sex differ- ences reflect smoking norms in home countries, where smoking is more accepted among men than women, and acculturation in the US.5 Among the three largest Asian American ethnic groups, current smoking is more common among Filipinos (12%) than Chinese (7%) or Asian Indians (6%) (Table S4. A study of Asians in New York found smoking rates as high as 36% in Korean men.80 Notably, while current smoking among NHWs is 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 most common among those with lower income and/or less edu- cation and the same is true for Asian American men, the reverse Rates are age adjusted to the 2000 US standard population. *Includes intrahepatic bile duct.
is true for Asian American women.81 Source: US Mortality Data, National Center for Health Statistics, Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention, 2015.
Smoking prevalence in Asian American men decreased from American Cancer Society, Inc., Surveil ance Research, 2016 25% in 1990-1992 to 14% in 2014, while in women, it has remained stable at 6% (Figure S10. However, national trends do not necessarily reflect those among specific groups or localities. smoking, alcohol consumption, occupational exposures, and For instance, there was no decline in smoking among Asian certain preserved foods.71 Cantonese salted fish, which is high in males in New York City from 2002 to 2010.82 nitrosamines, was identified as a risk factor for nasopharyngeal carcinoma among southern Chinese in the 1970s,72 leading to its designation by the International Agency for Research on Cancer Excess body weight increases the risk of several cancers, and as a carcinogen.73 also contributes to the development of other cancer risk factors, such as nonalcoholic fatty liver disease and type 2 diabetes. Incidence and mortality rates for nasopharyngeal carcinoma in Worldwide, normal weight is defined as a body mass index (BMI, AANHPIs declined by about 2% to 3% annually from 2003 to kg/m2) of 18.5-24.9, while overweight is 25-29.9 and obese is ≥30. 2012.9, 10 Rates have also been declining among some high-risk However, it has been shown that Asians have a higher percent- populations in Asia, possibly due to decreased smoking or con- age of body fat than whites at the same BMI, as well as a higher sumption of salted fish.74, 75 The recent declines among AANHPIs risk for type 2 diabetes at a lower BMI.83 As a result, lower BMI are not well understood, but may be attributable to dietary fac- cutpoints established by the American Diabetes Association are tors and decreased smoking.74 Five-year cause-specific survival used for assessing diabetes risk in Asian Americans.84, 85 Diabe- is higher for AANHPIs than NHWs (males 66% versus 59%; tes is a risk factor for several cancers, including breast, liver, females 74% versus 58%; Figure S6, ) for reasons that pancreatic, and colorectal.86 While some studies report elevated are unknown, but may include lower prevalence of other health cancer risk at a lower BMI among Asians compared with other conditions and/or less complete follow-up of AANHPI patients populations, especially for colon cancer,87, 88 others do not.89, 90 after diagnosis.11, 76 Cancer Facts & Figures 2016 35
Table S4. Prevalence of Cancer Risk Factors and Health Care Access by Sex and Asian Subgroup, US, 2014
Asian Indian
US Foreign
US Foreign
US Foreign
All Male Female All Male Female All Male Female All Male Female All
Cancer risk factors
Smoking (18+ years)
Alcohol† (18+ years) Body weight* (20+ years) Overweight/obese (BMI ≥25 kg/m2) (BMI = 25-29.9)Obese (BMI ≥ 30) Physical activity‡ (18+ years) No leisure time physical 25.9 activityMet recommended levels 51.6 of aerobic activity Health care access (18-64 years)
Uninsured
No regular source of BMI = Body mass index. *Estimates from 2013-2014 data combined. †Moderate: 12+ drinks in lifetime and (male) 3-14 drinks/week in past year or (female) 3-7 drinks/
week in past year. Heavy: 12+ drinks in lifetime and (male) >14 drinks/week in past year or (female) >7 drinks/week in past year. ‡Aerobic activity recommendations:
includes 150 minutes of moderate intensity activity or 75 minutes of vigorous intensity activity each week. §Estimate not provided due to instability. Note: Percentages
are age adjusted to the 2000 U.S. standard population.
Sources: All risk factors except BMI – National Center for Health Statistics. National Health Interview Survey, 2013 and 2014. Public-use data file. BMI – National Center
for Health Statistics. National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey Data, 2013-14.
American Cancer Society, Inc., Surveil ance Research, 2016 Three large pooled studies did not find Asians to be at higher risk for cancer death at a lower BMI.91-93 Thus, evidence to date is Alcohol consumption is associated with increased risk of several inconclusive about whether cancer risk is increased in Asians at cancers, and it also may interact with HBV and HCV to further promote the development of liver cancer.97 This is of special con- Asian Americans are much more likely to be a healthy weight cern among Asian Americans, who bear a disproportionate than NHWs.94 About 42% of Asian Americans are overweight or burden of HBV infection. Asian Americans are half as likely as obese compared to 69% of NHWs (Table S4). In contrast, three- NHWs to be moderate drinkers; however, prevalence among US- quarters of Native Hawaiians in Hawaii are overweight or born Asian Americans (16%) approaches that of NHWs (18%) obese.79 Asian American men (50%) are more likely to be over- weight or obese than Asian American women (35%). Excess body Infectious agents weight has increased among US-born Asian Americans, as well as recent and long-term immigrants. For instance, the preva- lence of overweight among US-born Filipinos increased from Chronic infection with H. pylori is highly endemic in Asia and 36% in 1992-1995 to 55% in 2003-2008.95 Prevalence of over- prevalence patterns mirror gastric cancer risk.98 H. pylori sero- weight and obesity varies by Asian American subgroup; a study prevalence is close to 60% in China and Korea,98 whereas it is in California found that only 8% of South Asian and 9% of Chi- about 30% in the United States, where H. pylori infection has been nese children were overweight, compared to 16% of Japanese declining since the late 19th century.99, 100 Although the spread of and Korean children and 18% of Filipino children.96 H. pylori is not well understood, infection occurs primarily dur-ing childhood and risk is higher in lower socioeconomic groups.100 Among Japanese immigrants to the US in the 1970s and 1980s, 36 Cancer Facts & Figures 2016
the risk of stomach cancer was shown to be lower than Japanese living in Japan, and risk was even lower among Japanese born in Figure S10. Trends in Current Smoking* among Asian
the US.101 Preliminary studies in Asia have shown that eradica- American Adults (18 Years and Older), 1990-2014
tion of H. pylori infection with antibiotics can reduce the risk of stomach cancer.102 HBV and HCV
HBV infection is highly endemic in Asia.103 As a result, Laos, Vietnam, Korea, and China have among the highest liver cancer incidence in the world.14 Nearly 70% of AANHPIs living in the US were born or have parents who were born in a country where HBV is highly prevalent.
104 AANHPIs account for more than 50% of those infected with HBV in the United States, although most who harbor the virus are unaware.104 The HBV vaccine was introduced in the early 1980s and has resulted in dramatic declines in liver cancer incidence among vaccinated cohorts in Taiwan.105 HBV vaccination in the US among AANHPI teens 1990-1992 1993-1995 1999-2001 2006-2008 2009-2011 2011-2013 (86%) is slightly lower than other racial/ethnic groups, which all have HBV vaccination coverage above 90%.106 The United States Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) recommends screen- *Estimates are age adjusted to the 2000 US standard population.
ing all those born in regions with a prevalence of HBV infection Source: 1990-2013: Health, United States, 2014: With Special Feature on
Adults Aged 55-64.6 2014: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. ≥2%, which includes all countries of Asia and the Pacific Islands National Health Interview Survey, 2014. Public-use data file.
except Australia and New Zealand.107 Among adults 18 years of American Cancer Society, Inc., Surveil ance Research, 2016 age and older, about 28% of both Asian Americans and NHWs had received a hepatitis B test (Table S5). girls 13-17 years of age, 36% received the three recommended While HBV is the leading liver cancer risk factor among Asian doses and 72% of those who received the first dose completed all Americans in the US, HCV is also an important risk factor, espe- three doses, similar to uptake among NHWs (Table S5, cially in some groups.108-110 For example, HCV is more common ). HPV vaccination uptake in Asian American boys is higher than HBV in Japan, where about 65% of liver cancers are esti- than in NHWs, with 27% receiving the three recommended mated to be attributable to HCV;111 however, HCV prevalence doses (compared with 19% in NHW boys) and 63% completion there has been decreasing due to public health programs.112 HCV (compared with 58% in NHW boys) (Table S5. HPV is also more prevalent in Pakistan and among older adults in vaccine uptake is influenced by caregiver awareness and varies Taiwan.108 The USPSTF also recommends HCV screening for all by local context; in a study in Los Angeles, California, only 64% adults born between 1945 and 1965, who account for three- and 44% of Chinese and Korean mothers, respectively, with age- quarters of HCV-infected individuals and HCV-related deaths in eligible daughters were aware of the vaccine.117 the United States.113 HCV testing coverage in this cohort is 13% among NHWs and 10% among Asian Americans (Table S5 Prevalence of cancer screening
. Through testing, HBV and HCV can be detected and treated, reducing the risk of liver cancer.114 Cervical and colorectal screening can detect and remove pre-cancerous lesions, thus preventing the development of cancer. In addition, screening for colorectal, cervical, and breast cancer HPV causes nearly all cervical cancers in the US, as well as many can detect cancers at an earlier stage when more treatment oropharyngeal and anogenital cancers.115 A clinic-based study options are available. Please see for screening recom- in 2003-2005 found that 17% of AANHPI women had a high-risk mendations for people at average cancer risk.
HPV infection (the type most likely to cause cancer), compared with 23% of white women.116 More recent HPV prevalence data Asian Americans are less likely than NHWs to be current for cer- are not available for AANHPI in the US. Worldwide, it is esti- vical and colorectal cancer screening, but have similar rates of mated that 5% of women in North America are infected with any breast cancer screening (Table S5). Seventy-one percent of Asian type of HPV, compared with 11% of women in Eastern Asia, 7% in American women overall (21-65 years of age) reported having a Southern Asia, and 14% in Southeastern Asia.61 Vaccines to pre- Pap test within the past 3 years, compared with 83% of NHWs. vent infection with the most common cancer-causing types of However, prevalence varies widely by subgroup and in Filipinas HPV have been available since 2006 and are recommended for is equal to that in NHWs. Slightly more than two-thirds of Asian boys and girls at 11 to 12 years of age. Among Asian American American (68%) and NHW (69%) women 45 years of age or older Cancer Facts & Figures 2016 37
Table S5. Cancer Screening Test Use (%), Vaccination Coverage (%), and Hepatitis Testing (%) by Asian Subgroup,
US, 2013-2014
Cervical cancer screening (women 21-65 years)†
Pap test within past 3 years Breast cancer screening (women 45+ years)
Mammogram within past 2 years Colorectal cancer screening (50+ years)
FOBT (past year)
Total
HPV vaccine utilization¶ (13-17 years)
Hepatitis B testing** (18+ years)
Has received hepatitis B test Hepatitis C testing** (48-69 years)††
Has received hepatitis C test NHW = Non-Hispanic white. *May be of any ethnicity. †Among women with an intact uterus. ‡Either a fecal occult blood test within the past year, sigmoidoscopy within
the past five years, or a colonoscopy within the past 10 years. §Sigmoidoscopy in the past 5 years and/or colonoscopy in the past 10 years. ¶Percentages for all Asians
exclude Hispanic ethnicity. Data are for 2014. #Percentage who completed the 3-dose vaccination series among those who had at least 1 dose. **Combined 2013 and
2014 NHIS data. ††The US Preventive Services Task Force recommends screening for adults born 1945-1965; these adults would be 48-69 years of age for the 2013-2014
available data. ‡‡Estimate not provided due to instability. Note: Percentages for cancer screening hepatitis testing are age adjusted to the 2000 U.S. standard population.
Source: Cancer screening – National Center for Health Statistics. National Health Interview Survey, 2013. Public-use data file. HPV vaccination – Reagan-Steiner S, et al.111
Hepatitis testing – National Center for Health Statistics. National Health Interview Survey, 2013 and 2014. Public-use data file.
American Cancer Society, Inc., Surveil ance Research, 2016 report having a mammogram within the past two years. Only Asian Americans of lower socioeconomic status are less likely to about half of Asian Americans (52%) 50 years of age and older receive recommended cancer screening, often because of less received recommended colorectal cancer screening, compared access to health care.119 Among Asian Americans, 13% of adults with 61% of NHWs. Notably, this disparity is almost entirely 18-64 years of age were uninsured in 2014, including 16% of those driven by the low screening rate among Asian American women. who were foreign-born, while 21% of men and 14% of women had While endoscopy is generally the preferred screening test among no regular source of medical care (Table S4). Among both NHWs and Asian Americans, Asian Americans are more Native Hawaiians in Hawaii, 8% were uninsured and 16% had no likely than NHWs to have had a fecal occult blood test (11% ver- regular source of medical care.79 Successful interventions to pro- sus 7%) and less likely to have had endoscopy (48% versus 58%) mote cancer screening among Asian Americans utilize lay health (Table S5). A recent study reported that Native Hawaiians were workers, one-on-one communications, translated materials, and more than 30% less likely to get a colonoscopy or mammogram approaches that not only involve Asian community members, compared to NHWs.118 but also health care providers.120 Patient navigators in particular have been shown to improve the receipt of recommended screen-ing and follow-up.121 38 Cancer Facts & Figures 2016
Asian Pacific Islander Cancer Education
American Cancer Society Materials Tool
The American Cancer Society provides information and services The Asian Pacific Islander Cancer Education Materials (APICEM) for AANHPIs, including: tool is a searchable web tool where users can access hundreds of patient-focused cancer education materials in 22 Asian and • Cancer information in Asian languages: cancer.org/
Pacific Islander languages along with their English translations. The tool was created to help clinicians provide information • California Chinese Unit: acsccu.org
to their Asian and Pacific Islander patients and is continual y • New York and New Jersey Asian initiatives: updated by its contributors, which include cancer research organizations and AANHPI health advocacy and community organizations. APICEM is made possible through the coop- Asian American Network for Cancer Awareness, eration of the American Cancer Society; the Asian American Network for Cancer Awareness, Research and Training; and the Research, and Training National Cancer Institute. Visior more information.
The Asian American Network for Cancer Awareness, Research, and Training (AANCART) aims to to reduce cancer health disparities by conducting community-based participatory edu- NHPIs by increasing access to prevention and healthcare; devel- cation, training, and research by, for, and with Asian American oping and conduct evidence-based intervention research; and training and developing researchers using community-based par-ticipatory research (CBPR) methods to reduce health disparities. Asian and Pacific Islander National Cancer Survivors Network 1. Colby SL, Ortman JM. Projections of the Size and Composition of the U.S. Population: 2014 to 2060, Current Population Reports, P25-1143. The Asian and Pacific Islander National Cancer Survivors Net- Washington, DC: U.S. Census Bureau; 2014.
work (APINCSN) links cancer survivors, their family members, 2. Brown A. U.S. Hispanic and Asian populations growing, but for differ-ent reasons. Available at health care providers, researchers, health advocates, commu- nity members, and organizations who are concerned about the tember 15, 2015.
issue of cancer and survivorship in Asian American, Native 3. Hixson L, Hepler BB, Kim MO. The Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Hawaiian and Pacific Islander communities.
Islander Population: 2010. 2010 Census Briefs: U.S. Department of Com-merce, Economics and Statistics Administration, U.S. Census Bureau; Asian & Pacific Islander American Health Forum 4. Hoeffel EM, Rastogi S, Kim MO, Shahid H. The Asian Population: 2010. 2010 Census Briefs: U.S. Department of Commerce, Economics and The Asian & Pacific Islander American Health Forum (APIAHF) Statistics Administration, U.S. Census Bureau; 2012.
works with communities to influence policy and strengthen 5. An N, Cochran SD, Mays VM, McCarthy WJ. Influence of American their community-based organizations to achieve health equity acculturation on cigarette smoking behaviors among Asian American for Asian Americans and NHPIs across the country. subpopulations in California. Nicotine Tob Res. 2008;10:579-587.
6. Bates LM, Acevedo-Garcia D, Alegria M, Krieger N. Immigration and Tufts University Selected Patient Information generational trends in body mass index and obesity in the United States: Resources in Asian Languages: results of the National Latino and Asian American Survey, 2002-2003. Am J Public Health. 2008;98:70-77.
7. Dang J, Lee J, Tran JH, et al. The role of medical interpretation on Tufts University Selected Patient Information Resources in Asian breast and cervical cancer screening among Asian American and Pacific Islander women. J Cancer Educ. 2010;25:253-262.
Languages (SPIRAL) is a web resource that connects people to 8. Gomez SL, Glaser SL, Horn-Ross PL, et al. Cancer research in Asian authoritative health information in Asian languages that is American, Native Hawaiian, and Pacific Islander populations: acceler- freely available on the Internet.
ating cancer knowledge by acknowledging and leveraging heterogene-ity. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2014;23:2202-2205.
‘Imi Hale Native Hawaiian Cancer Network 9. Surveillance, Epidemiology and End Results (SEER) Program (www.
seer.cancer.gov) SEER*Stat Database: NAACCR Incidence – CiNA Ana-lytic File, 1995-2012, for NHIAv2 Origin and for Expanded Races, Cus- ‘Imi Hale collaborates with key local, state, national and interna- tom File With County, ACS Facts and Figures projection Project, North tional partners to reduce cancer incidence and mortality among American Association of Central Cancer Registries. Cancer Facts & Figures 2016 39
10. Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) Program (www.
27. Caraballo RS, Yee SL, Gfroerer J, Mirza SA. Adult tobacco use among seer.cancer.gov) SEER*Stat Database: Mortality – All COD, Aggregated racial and ethnic groups living in the United States, 2002-2005. Prev With State, Total U.S. (1990-2012) <Katrina/Rita Population Adjust- Chronic Dis. 2008;5:A78.
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in breast cancer incidence among 6 Asian groups in the Greater Bay 30. Lam WK, White NW, Chan-Yeung MM. Lung cancer epidemiology Area of Northern California. Int J Cancer. 2007;120:1324-1329.
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42 Cancer Facts & Figures 2016
Tobacco Use
Smoking remains the world's most preventable cause of death. • Based on the 2014 National Health Interview Survey (NHIS), Since the first US Surgeon General's report on smoking and approximately 40 million adults (18 years and older) were health in 1964, there have been more than 20 million premature current smokers,7 about 4.5 million fewer than in 2004.8 deaths attributable to smoking in the US. Each year, cigarette • The proportion of daily smokers reporting light or intermit- smoking results in an estimated 480,000 premature deaths, tent smoking (fewer than 10 cigarettes per day) increased 42,000 of which are due to secondhand smoke exposure.1, 2 The between 2004 (17%) and 2014 (27%), whereas heavy smoking number of people who die prematurely or suffer illness from (30 or more cigarettes per day) declined from 13% to 7%.7, 8 tobacco use impose substantial health-related economic costs • Although uptake of smoking began earlier in men than in on society. In 2012, smoking accounted for $176 billion in health women, the gender gap, particularly among non-Hispanic care-related expenditures in the US.1 whites, has narrowed. As of 2014, there was a 2 percentage point difference in smoking prevalence between white men Cigarette Smoking
(19%) and women (17%), a 9 percentage point difference Cigarette smoking increases the risk of cancers of the oral cavity between non-Hispanic black men (23%) and women (14%), a and pharynx, larynx, lung, esophagus, pancreas, uterine cervix, 7 percentage point difference between Hispanic men (15%) kidney, bladder, stomach, colorectum, and liver, as well as acute and women (8%), and a 9 percentage point difference between myeloid leukemia.1 In addition, the International Agency for Asian men (14%) and women (5%).7 Research on Cancer recently concluded that there is some evi- • Smoking is most common, and has declined more slowly, dence that tobacco smoking causes female breast cancer, and among those with the least education. In 2014, smoking the Surgeon General concluded that smoking increases the risk prevalence was 23% among adults 25 years and older with of advanced-stage prostate cancer.1,3 Excluding secondhand less than a high school diploma and 5% among those with smoke, smoking is estimated to cause 32% of all cancer deaths in graduate degrees. Smoking was most prevalent among adults the US,4 including 83% of lung cancer deaths among men and with a GED (General Educational Development), or high 76% of lung cancer deaths among women (Figure 4).5 school equivalency credential (43%).7 • The prevalence of current cigarette smoking (defined as • Among US states in 2013, the prevalence of adult smok- smoking at least 100 cigarettes and currently smoking) ing ranged from 10% in Utah to 27% in West Virginia and among adults 18 years of age and older has declined by more than half, from 42% in 1965 to 17% in 2014; however, reduc-tions vary across population subgroups.6,7 Figure 4. Number and Percentage (%) of Cancer Deaths Attributable to Cigarette Smoking in 2011,
Adults 35 Years and Older
Attributable to cigarette smoking Lung, bronchus, & trachea Lung, bronchus, & trachea Liver & intrahepatic bile duct Oral cavity & pharynx Oral cavity & pharynx Liver & intrahepatic bile duct Kidney & renal pelvis Kidney & renal pelvis Number of deaths (in thousands)
Number of deaths (in thousands)
Source: Siegel RL, et al.5
2015 American Medical Association. All rights reserved.
Cancer Facts & Figures 2016 43
• Although current cigarette smoking among US high school • Nationwide, SHS exposure among nonsmokers declined from students (at least once in the past 30 days) increased from 84% in 1988-199423 to 25% in 2011-2012,24 likely reflecting 28% in 1991 to 36% in 1997, it declined to 9% in 2014.10, 11 widespread implementation of smoke-free laws and reduc-tion in smoking prevalence. However, this progress differs by • In contrast to the decline in cigarette smoking among teens, subgroup, and poor individuals remain substantially more current use of hookahs in this age group has increased likely to be exposed than those who are more affluent.
dramatically, from 4% in 2011 to 9% in 2014, and is now as common as smoking.11 • In the US, as of July 1, 2015, 763 municipalities and 24 states, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, and the US Virgin Islands have laws in place requiring all non-hospitality work-places, restaurants, and bars to be 100% smoke-free.25 Cigar smoking causes many of the same diseases as cigarette • Currently, 49% of the US population is covered by a 100% smoking and smokeless tobacco. Regular cigar smoking is asso- smoke-free policy in workplaces, restaurants, and bars.25 ciated with an increased risk of cancers of the lung, oral cavity, larynx, esophagus, and probably pancreas.12 Cigar smokers have 4 to 10 times the risk of dying from lung, laryngeal, oral, or esophageal cancer compared to never smokers.13, 14 Historically, Electronic nicotine delivery systems (ENDS) are battery-oper- lower tax rates on cigars have caused some smokers to switch ated devices that allow the user to inhale a vapor produced from from cigarettes to less costly cigars. cartridges or tanks filled with a liquid typically containing nico-tine, propylene glycol and/or vegetable glycerin, other chemicals, • While total cigarette consumption declined by one-third and sometimes flavoring. The term e-cigarettes will be used from 2000 to 2011, large cigar consumption more than hereafter to refer to any ENDS, including those not designed to tripled, from 3.9 billion (cigarette equivalents) to 12.9 billion.15 mimic cigarettes. Some studies have shown lower levels of toxic • According to the 2012-2013 National Adult Tobacco Survey chemicals in aerosol from e-cigarette products than in smoke (NATS), 2% of adults (3% of men and <1% of women) reported from combustible cigarettes, and e-cigarettes are promoted as a smoking cigars every day or some days.16 less harmful alternative to traditional cigarettes and a way to • Cigar use was highest among non-Hispanic blacks (4%) and bypass smoke-free laws. However, the long-term health risks of those with household incomes <$20,000.16 using these products, or being exposed to them secondhand, are • In 2014, 8% of US high school students had smoked cigars, unknown and likely vary depending on the specific e-cigarette cigarillos, or little cigars at least once in the past 30 days product and how it is used.
down from 18% in 1999.10, 11 While the health risks of e-cigarettes are not fully known, there • In contrast to non-Hispanic whites and Hispanics, cigars is growing concern that e-cigarette use will normalize cigarette are the most common form of tobacco use among black high smoking and lead to the use of other forms of tobacco products school students (9%, versus 5% to 6% for e-cigarettes, hookahs, with known health risks. Indeed, a recent study indicates that and cigarettes).11 adolescent e-cigarette users are much more likely to initiate cigarette, cigar, or hookah smoking than nonusers.26 Also, these products may discourage utilization of evidence-based cessa-tion therapies among those who want to quit. E-cigarettes have There is no safe level of exposure to secondhand smoke (SHS), or been gaining in popularity, particularly among high school environmental tobacco smoke, which contains more than 7,000 chemicals, at least 69 of which cause cancer.17 Exposure to SHS increases the risk of lung diseases, including lung cancer, coronary • According to the 2012-2013 NATS, 2% of adults were current artery disease, and heart attacks.18-20 SHS can also cause coughing, (every day or some days) e-cigarette users.16 wheezing, chest tightness, and reduced lung function in adult non- • The prevalence of ever use of e-cigarettes among adults smokers.21 Laws that prohibit smoking in public places and create doubled between 2010 and 2011, from 3% to 6%.27 smoke-free environments are the most effective approach to pre- • E-cigarette use (at least once in the past 30 days) has increased vent exposure to and harm from SHS. In addition, there is strong most rapidly among high school students, surpassing cigarette evidence that smoke-free policies decrease the prevalence of both smoking in 2014 to become the most common form of tobacco adult and youth smoking.20, 22 Momentum to regulate public smok- use; prevalence increased from 2% in 2011 to 13% in 2014.11 ing began to increase in 1990, and smoke-free laws have become increasingly common and comprehensive over time.
• In high school students, e-cigarette use is more than twice as high among non-Hispanic whites (15%) and Hispanics (15%) • Each year, about 7,330 nonsmoking adults die of lung cancer as among blacks (6%).11 as a result of breathing SHS.1 44 Cancer Facts & Figures 2016
Smokeless Tobacco Products
• According to the 2014 NHIS, 57% (52.2 million) of the 92.3 million Americans who ever smoked at least 100 cigarettes Smokeless tobacco products include moist snuff, chewing are now former smokers.7 tobacco, snus (a "spitless," moist powder tobacco pouch), dissolv-able nicotine products, and a variety of other tobacco-containing • In 2014, 49% of current smokers attempted to quit for at least products that are not smoked. These products cause oral, esoph- one day in the past year.7 ageal, and pancreatic cancers; precancerous lesions of the mouth; • Smokers with an undergraduate or graduate degree are more gum recession; bone loss around the teeth; and tooth staining.28, 29 likely to succeed in quitting than less educated smokers.37 They can also lead to nicotine addiction. Compared to quitting • Although effective cessation treatments can double or triple a completely, switching to smokeless tobacco products as a substi- smoker's chances of long-term abstinence, only 32% of people tute for smoking has been shown to increase the risk of who try to quit used counseling or medication. Use of smok- tobacco-related death.30 Furthermore, smokers who use smoke- ing cessation aids is particularly low among smokers with less products as a supplemental source of nicotine to postpone or lower educational attainment.38 avoid quitting will increase rather than decrease their risk of • In 2013, 56% of high school students who were current ciga- rette smokers tried to quit during the 12 months preceding Recently, the smokeless market in high-income countries, including the US, has been consolidated from smaller tobacco companies into the control of tobacco multinational corpora- Reducing Tobacco Use and Exposure
tions. In the US, the sales of smokeless tobacco products are growing at a more rapid pace than cigarettes.32 As part of their There are federal, state, and local initiatives aimed at reducing marketing strategy, the industry is actively promoting these tobacco exposure. While states have been at the forefront of products both for use in settings where smoking is prohibited tobacco control efforts, the importance of the federal govern- and as a way to quit smoking. However, there is no evidence to ment's role was emphasized in a 2007 Institute of Medicine date that these products are as effective as proven cessation Report.40 Federal initiatives in tobacco control hold promise for therapies for quitting. When smokeless tobacco was aggres- reducing tobacco use, and include regulation of tobacco prod- sively marketed in the US in the 1970s and 1980s, use of these ucts, national legislation ensuring coverage of some clinical products increased among adolescent males, but not among cessation services, and tax increases. The Family Smoking Pre- older smokers trying to quit. The use of any smokeless tobacco vention and Tobacco Control Act of 2009 granted the US Food product is not considered a safe substitute for quitting.33, 34 and Drug Administration (FDA) the authority to regulate the manufacturing, selling, and marketing of tobacco products. Key • The sales of moist snuff increased by 66% between 2005 provisions that have already gone into effect include the prohibi- tion of misleading descriptors such as light, low, and mild on • According to the 2014 NHIS, 2% of adults 18 years of age and tobacco product labels and the prohibition of fruit and candy older (4% of men and <1% of women) currently (every day or cigarette flavorings. Provisions in the 2010 Affordable Care Act some days) used smokeless tobacco products.7 ensure at least minimum coverage of evidence-based cessation • According to the 2012-2013 NATS, whites and American Indi- treatments, including pharmacotherapy and cessation counsel- ans/Alaska Natives were more likely to use smokeless tobacco ing, to previously uninsured tobacco users, pregnant Medicaid than non-Hispanic black, Hispanics/Latinos, or Asians.15 recipients, and eligible Medicare recipients. Furthermore, cost-sharing for evidence-based cessation treatments was eliminated • Current adult smokeless tobacco use (including snus use) for new or renewed private health plans and Medicare recipients. varied from <2% in California; Washington, DC; and Massa-chusetts to 9% in West Virginia in 2013.9 In 2000, the US Surgeon General outlined the goals and compo- • According to the 2014 National Youth Tobacco Survey, 10% nents of comprehensive statewide tobacco control programs.41 of high school boys and 1% of girls used smokeless tobacco in These programs seek to prevent the initiation of tobacco use the past 30 days.11 among youth, promote quitting at all ages, eliminate nonsmok-ers' exposure to SHS, and identify and eliminate the disparities related to tobacco use and its effects among different population groups. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Smokers who quit, regardless of age, increase their longevity, recommends funding levels for comprehensive tobacco use pre- with those who quit before middle age generally experiencing a vention and cessation programs for all 50 states and the District lifespan similar to never smokers.36 Smoking cessation reduces of Columbia. In fiscal year 2015, 7 states allocated 50% or more the risk of lung and other cancers caused by smoking. In addi- of CDC-recommended funding levels for tobacco control pro- tion, cancer survivors who quit smoking have better health grams.24 States that have previously invested in comprehensive outcomes than those who do not.1 Cancer Facts & Figures 2016 45
tobacco control programs, such as California, Massachusetts, 10. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Youth Online: High and Florida, have reduced smoking rates and saved millions of School YRBS. Available from URL: http://nccd.cdc.gov/youthonline/App/
dollars in tobacco-related health care costs.41 For more informa- Default.aspx [accessed September, 15, 2014].
tion about tobacco control, visit to view the 11. Arrazola RA, Singh T, Corey CG, et al. Tobacco use among middle most recent edition of Cancer Prevention & Early Detection Facts and high school students – United States, 2011-2014. MMWR Morb Mor-tal Wkly Rep. 2015;64: 381-385.
& Figures.
12. Baker F, Ainsworth SR, Dye JT, et al. Health risks associated with cigar smoking. JAMA. 2000;284: 735-740.
13. Shanks TG, Burns DM. Disease consequences of cigar smoking. National Cancer Institute, Smoking and Tobacco Control, Monograph 9: Substantial progress has been made in reducing the disease bur- Cigars – Health Effects and Trends. Washington, DC: National Institutes den from tobacco over the 52 years since the first report of the of Health, 1998.
Surgeon General's Advisory Committee on Smoking and Health 14. Shapiro JA, Jacobs EJ, Thun MJ. Cigar smoking in men and risk of in 1964. Smoking prevalence has been reduced by more than death from tobacco-related cancers. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2000;92: 333-337.
half, and millions of premature deaths have been averted. Nev- 15. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Consumption of ciga- ertheless, more needs to be done to further reduce the health rettes and combustible tobacco – United States, 2000-2011. MMWR and economic burden of tobacco. Numerous studies confirm Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2012;61: 565-569.
that a comprehensive approach to tobacco control, including 16. Agaku IT, King BA, Husten CG, et al. Tobacco product use among higher taxes, 100% smoke-free environments, coverage for adults - United States, 2012-2013. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2014;63: tobacco dependence treatment, full implementation of the FDA 17. US Department of Health and Human Services. How Tobacco Smoke Family Smoking Prevention and Tobacco Control Act, and vigor- Causes Disease – The Biology and Behavioral Basis for Smoking-Attrib- ous tobacco counter-advertising, can be successful in reducing utable Disease. Rockville, MD: US Department of Health and Human deaths, disease, and economic disruption from tobacco use.
Services, Public Health Service, Centers for Disease Control and Pre-vention, Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Office on Smoking and Health, 2010.
18. International Agency for Research on Cancer. IARC Monographs 1. US Department of Health and Human Services. The Health Conse- on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. Volume 83: Tobacco quences of Smoking-50 Years of Progress. A Report from the Surgeon Gen- smoke and Involuntary Smoking. Lyon, France: IARC, 2004.
eral. Atlanta, GA; USA: Department of Health and Human Services. Cen- 19. US Department of Health and Human Services. The Health Conse- ters for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Chronic quences of Involuntary Exposure to Tobacco Smoke. A Report from the Sur- Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, 2014.
geon General. Washington, DC: US Department of Health and Human 2. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Smoking-attributable Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and Health Promo- mortality, years of potential life lost, and productivity losses – United tion, Office of Smoking and Health, 2006.
States, 2000-2004. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2008;57: 1226-1228.
20. Institute of Medicine. Secondhand Smoke Exposure and Cardiovas- 3. Secretan B, Straif K, Baan R, et al. A review of human carcinogens – cular Effects: Making Sense of the Evidence. Washington, DC: IOM, 2009.
Part E: tobacco, areca nut, alcohol, coal smoke, and salted fish. Lancet 21. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Vital Signs: Nonsmok- Oncol. 2009;10: 1033-1034.
ers' Exposure to Secondhand Smoke – United States, 1999-2008. MMWR 4. Jacobs EJ, Newton CC, Carter BD, et al. What proportion of cancer Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2010;59: 1141-1146.
deaths in the contemporary United States is attributable to cigarette 22. International Agency for Research on Cancer. IARC Handbooks of smoking? Ann Epidemiol. 2015;25: 179-182.e171.
Cancer Prevention. Volume 13: Evaluating the Effectiveness of Smoke-free 5. Siegel RL, Jacobs EJ, Newton CC, et al. Deaths Due to Cigarette Smok- Policies. Lyon, France: IARC, 2009.
ing for 12 Smoking-Related Cancers in the United States. JAMA Intern 23. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Disparities in second- Med. 2015.
hand smoke exposure – United States, 1988-1994 and 1999-2004. MMWR 6. National Center for Health Statistics. Health, United States, 2014: With Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2008;57: 744-747.
Special Feature on Adults Aged 55–64. Hyattsville, MD, 2015.
24. Homa DM, Neff LJ, King BA, et al. Vital signs: disparities in nonsmok- 7. National Center for Health Statistics. National Health Interview Sur- ers' exposure to secondhand smoke – United States, 1999-2012. MMWR vey, 2014. Public-use data file and documentation. Available from URL: Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2015;64: 103-108.
http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/nhis/quest_data_related_1997_forward.htm [accessed 25. American Cancer Society Cancer Action Network. How Do You Mea-
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sure Up? A Progress Report on State Legislative Activity to Reduce Can- 8. National Center for Health Statistics. National Health Interview Sur- cer Incidence and Mortality, 2015.
vey, 2004. Public-use data file and documentation. Available from URL: 26. Leventhal AM, Strong DR, Kirkpatrick MG, et al. Association of Elec- http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/nhis/quest_data_related_1997_forward.htm [accessed tronic Cigarette Use With Initiation of Combustible Tobacco Product
December 5, 2008].
Smoking in Early Adolescence. JAMA. 2015;314: 700-707.
9. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Behavioral Risk Factor 27. King BA, Alam S, Promoff G, Arrazola R, Dube SR. Awareness and Surveillance System Survey Data and Documentation. Available from ever-use of electronic cigarettes among U.S. adults, 2010-2011. Nicotine Tob Res. 2013;15: 1623-1627.
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46 Cancer Facts & Figures 2016
28. Boffetta P, Hecht S, Gray N, Gupta P, Straif K. Smokeless tobacco and 35. Delnevo CD, Wackowski OA, Giovenco DP, Manderski MT, Hrywna cancer. Lancet Oncol. 2008;9: 667-675.
M, Ling PM. Examining market trends in the United States smokeless 29. US Department of Health and Human Services. The Health Conse- tobacco use: 2005-2011. Tob Control. 2014;23: 107-112.
quences of Using Smokeless Tobacco: A Report of the Advisory Committee to 36. Doll R, Peto R, Boreham J, Sutherland I. Mortality in relation to smok- the Surgeon General. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human ing: 50 years' observation on male British doctors. BMJ. 2004;328: 1519- Services,National Institutes of Health, National Cancer Institute, 1986.
30. Henley SJ, Connell CJ, Richter P, et al. Tobacco-related disease mor- 37. Zhuang YL, Gamst AC, Cummins SE, Wolfson T, Zhu SH. Compari- tality among men who switched from cigarettes to spit tobacco. Tob son of smoking cessation between education groups: findings from 2 US Control. 2007;16: 22-28.
National Surveys over 2 decades. Am J Public Health. 2015;105: 373-379.
31. Henley SJ, Thun MJ, Connell C, Calle EE. Two large prospective stud- 38. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Quitting smoking ies of mortality among men who use snuff or chewing tobacco (United among adults – United States, 2001-2010. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. States). Cancer Causes Control. 2005;16: 347-358.
2011;60: 1513-1519.
32. Eriksen M, Mackay J, Ross H. The Tobacco Atlas, Fourth Ed.: Atlanta, 39. Kann L, Kinchen S, Shanklin SL, et al. Youth risk behavior surveil- GA: American Cancer Society; New York, NY: World Lung Foundation, lance – United States, 2013. MMWR Surveill Summ. 2014;63 Suppl 4: 33. Connolly GN. The marketing of nicotine addiction by one oral snuff 40. Institute of Medicine. Ending the Tobacco Problem: A Blueprint for the manufacturer. Tob Control. 1995;4: 73-79.
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and Health, 1994.
Nutrition & Physical Activity
The World Cancer Research Fund estimates that about 20% of Recommendations for Individual
cancers that occur in the US are due to the combined effects of excess alcohol consumption, poor nutrition, physical inactivity, and excess weight, and thus could be prevented.1 For the 83% of 1. Achieve and maintain a healthy weight people who don't smoke, maintaining a healthy body weight, throughout life.
being physically active on a regular basis, and eating a healthy • Be as lean as possible throughout life without being diet are the most important ways to reduce cancer risk. Studies estimate that adults who follow these healthy lifestyle recom- • Avoid excess weight gain at all ages. For those who are cur- mendations, including not smoking, are 36% less likely to be rently overweight or obese, losing even a small amount of diagnosed with cancer and 40% less likely to die from the dis- weight has health benefits and is a good place to start.
ease.2 The American Cancer Society's nutrition and physical activity guidelines emphasize the importance of weight control, • Engage in regular physical activity and limit consumption of physical activity, healthy dietary patterns, and limited, if any, high-calorie foods and beverages as key strategies for main- alcohol consumption in reducing cancer risk and helping people taining a healthy weight.
stay well. Unfortunately, the majority of Americans are not Overweight and obesity are clearly associated with increased meeting these recommendations.3 The Society's guidelines also risk for developing many cancers, including adenocarcinoma of include recommendations for community action because of the the esophagus and cancers of the breast (in postmenopausal large influence that physical and social environments have on women), colorectum, endometrium, kidney, liver, and pancreas. individual food and activity behaviors.
Overweight and obesity may also be associated with an increased The following recommendations reflect the best nutrition and risk of aggressive prostate cancer, non-Hodgkin lymphoma, physical activity evidence available to help Americans reduce multiple myeloma, and cancers of the cervix, ovary, and gall- their risk of cancer and promote overall health. See Cancer Pre- bladder. Abdominal fatness in particular is convincingly vention & Early Detection Facts & Figures at associated with colorectal cancer, and probably related to higher for more detailed information on how nutrition, physical activ- risk of pancreatic and endometrial cancers. In addition, accu- ity, and body weight affect cancer risk.
mulating evidence suggests that obesity increases the risk for cancer recurrence and decreases survival rates for several can-cers.4, 5 Some studies have shown that intentional weight loss is Cancer Facts & Figures 2016 47
associated with decreased cancer risk among women, but the factors. Physical activity also improves the quality of life of can- evidence is less clear for men.6 cer patients and has been associated with reduced cancer recurrence and overall mortality in cancer survivor groups, The prevalence of obesity among US adults 20-74 years of age including breast, colorectal, prostate, and ovarian cancer.
more than doubled between 1976-1980 (15%) and 1999-2000 (31%), but since 2005 has remained around 35%.7 However, Despite the wide variety of health benefits from being active, in among certain subgroups, such as Hispanic (45%) and non-His- 2014 30% of adults reported no leisure-time activity, and only 50% panic black (57%) women, obesity prevalence is much higher. met recommended levels of aerobic activity. Similarly, only 25% of Similar to adults, obesity among children and adolescents has children 12 to 15 years of age and 27% of high school students met risen rapidly in the past several decades across race, ethnicity, recommendations. However, recent data released by the CDC and gender. In 2011-2012, 17% of American children 2 to 19 years indicate that trends may be slightly improving. The proportion of of age were obese, including 20% of blacks, 22% of Hispanics, adults meeting recommended aerobic and muscle-strengthening 14% of non-Hispanic whites, and 7% of Asians.8 However, a guidelines increased from 14% in 1998 to 22% in 2014.
recent study suggests that obesity rates among children and adolescents have plateaued over the past decade, with declines 3. Consume a healthy diet, with an emphasis on reported among children 2 to 5 years of age, perhaps an indica- plant foods.
tion that the obesity epidemic is stalling.8 Because overweight in • Choose foods and beverages in amounts that help achieve youth tends to continue throughout life, efforts to establish and maintain a healthy weight.
healthy body weight patterns should begin in childhood. • Limit consumption of red and processed meat.
The high prevalence of obesity in children and adolescents may • Eat at least 2½ cups of vegetables and fruits each day.
impact the future cancer burden. More than likely, the obesity • Choose whole grains instead of refined-grain products.
epidemic is already impacting cancer rates. For example, rising endometrial cancer incidence rates likely reflect, to some extent, There is strong scientific evidence that healthy dietary patterns, the increasing prevalence of obesity.9 Additionally, some in combination with regular physical activity, are needed to researchers have speculated that the longstanding, historic maintain a healthy body weight and to reduce cancer risk. Stud- increases in life expectancy in the US may level off or even ies have shown that individuals who eat more processed and red decline within the first half of this century as a result of the meat, potatoes, refined grains, and sugar-sweetened beverages obesity epidemic.
and foods are at a higher risk of developing or dying from a vari-ety of cancers. Alternatively, adhering to a diet that contains a 2. Adopt a physically active lifestyle.
variety of fruits and vegetables, whole grains, and fish or poultry • Adults should engage in at least 150 minutes of moderate- and fewer red and processed meats is associated with lower risk. intensity or 75 minutes of vigorous-intensity activity each Recent studies found that dietary and lifestyle behaviors consis- week, or an equivalent combination, preferably spread tent with the American Cancer Society nutrition and physical throughout the week.
activity guidelines are associated with lower mortality rates for all causes of death combined, and for cancer and cardiovascular • Children and adolescents should engage in at least 1 hour diseases specifically.11, 12 Despite the known benefits of a healthy of moderate- or vigorous-intensity activity each day, with diet, Americans are not following recommendations; according vigorous-intensity activity at least three days each week.
to the US Department of Agriculture, the majority of Americans • Limit sedentary behavior such as sitting, lying down, would need to substantially lower their intake of added sugars, and watching television and other forms of screen-based added fats, refined grains, and sodium, and increase their con- sumption of fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and low-fat dairy • Doing any intentional physical activity above usual activities products in order to meet the 2010 Dietary Guidelines for can have many health benefits.
Living a physically active lifestyle helps reduce the risk of a vari- The scientific study of nutrition and cancer is highly complex, ety of cancer types, as well as heart disease, diabetes, and many and many important questions remain unanswered. It is not other diseases. Scientific evidence indicates that physical activ- presently clear how single nutrients, combinations of nutrients, ity may reduce the risk of cancers of the breast, colon, and over-nutrition, and energy imbalance, or the amount and distri- endometrium, as well as advanced prostate cancer.10 Physical bution of body fat and nutritional exposures at particular stages activity also indirectly reduces the risk of developing obesity- of life, affect a person's risk of specific cancers. Until more is related cancers because of its role in helping to maintain a known about the specific components of diet that influence can- healthy weight. Being active is thought to reduce cancer risk cer risk, the best advice is to consume a mostly plant-based diet largely by improving energy metabolism and reducing circulat- that limits red and processed meats and emphasizes a variety of ing concentrations of estrogen, insulin, and insulin-like growth vegetables, fruits, and whole grains. A special emphasis should 48 Cancer Facts & Figures 2016
be placed on controlling total caloric intake to help achieve and environment are required to help individuals make smart food maintain a healthy weight.
and physical activity choices and maintain a healthy body weight.
4. If you drink alcoholic beverages, limit People who drink alcohol should limit their intake to no more 1. World Cancer Research Fund International. Continious Update Proj-ect: Cancer preventability estimates for diet, nutrition, body fatness, and than two drinks per day for men and one drink per day for physical activity. London, UK: World Cancer Research Fund Interna- women. Alcohol consumption is a risk factor for cancers of the tional, 2015.
mouth, pharynx, larynx, esophagus, liver, colorectum, female 2. Ford ES, Bergmann MM, Kroger J, Schienkiewitz A, Weikert C, Boeing breast, and possibly pancreas.3, 10, 13, 14 For each of these cancers, H. Healthy living is the best revenge: findings from the European Pro- risk increases substantially with the intake of more than two spective Investigation Into Cancer and Nutrition-Potsdam study. Arch drinks per day. Even a few drinks per week may be associated Intern Med. 2009;169: 1355-1362.
with a slightly increased risk of breast cancer in women.15 Alco- 3. Kushi LH, Doyle C, McCullough M, et al. American Cancer Society hol consumption combined with tobacco use increases the risk Guidelines on Nutrition and Physical Activity for cancer prevention: reducing the risk of cancer with healthy food choices and physical activ- of cancers of the mouth, larynx, and esophagus far more than ity. CA Cancer J Clin. 2012;62(1): 30-67.
either drinking or smoking alone.10 4. Campbell PT, Newton CC, Dehal AN, Jacobs EJ, Patel AV, Gapstur SM. Impact of body mass index on survival after colorectal cancer diagnosis: The American Cancer Society
the Cancer Prevention Study-II Nutrition Cohort. J Clin Oncol. 2012;30: Recommendations for Community
42-52.
5. Cao Y, Ma J. Body mass index, prostate cancer-specific mortality, and biochemical recurrence: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Cancer Prev Res (Phila). 2011;4: 486-501.
Many Americans encounter substantial barriers to consuming a 6. Birks S, Peeters A, Backholer K, O'Brien P, Brown W. A systematic healthy diet and engaging in regular physical activity. Among review of the impact of weight loss on cancer incidence and mortality. those barriers that have collectively contributed to increased Obes Rev. 2012;13: 868-891.
obesity are: limited access to affordable, healthy foods; increased 7. Fryar CD, Carroll MD, Ogden CL. Prevalence of Overweight, Obesity, portion sizes, especially of restaurant meals; marketing and and Extreme Obesity Among Adults: United States, 1960-1962 through advertising of foods and beverages high in calories, fat, and 2011-2012. National Center for Health Statistics. September 2014. Avail- added sugar, particularly to kids; schools and worksites that are not conducive to good health; community design that hinders physical activity and promotes sedentary behavior; and eco- 8. Ogden CL, Carroll MD, Kit BK, Flegal KM. Prevalence of childhood and adult obesity in the United States, 2011-2012. JAMA. 2014;311: 806-814.
nomic and time constraints.
9. Polednak AP. Estimating the number of U.S. incident cancers attribut- The Society's nutrition and physical activity guidelines include able to obesity and the impact on temporal trends in incidence rates for Recommendations for Community Action because of the tre- obesity-related cancers. Cancer Detect Prev. 2008;32: 190-199.
mendous influence that the surrounding environment has on 10. World Cancer Research Fund/American Institute for Cancer Research. individual food and activity choices. Acknowledging that revers- The Associations Between Food, Nutrition and Phyisical Activity and the Prevention of Cancer: A Global Perspective. Washington, DC: World Cancer ing obesity trends will require extensive policy and environmental Research Fund/American Institute for Cancer Research 2007.
changes, the Society calls for public, private, and community 11. Kabat G, Matthews C, Kamensky V, Hollenbeck A, Rohan TE. Adher- organizations to create social and physical environments that ence to cancer prevention guidelines and cancer incidence, cancer mor- support the adoption and maintenance of healthy eating and tality, and total mortality: a prospective cohort study. Am J Clin Nutr. physical activity behaviors to help people stay well.
2015;101: 558-569.
12. McCullough ML, Patel AV, Kushi LH, et al. Following cancer preven- Achieving these recommendations requires multiple strategies tion guidelines reduces risk of cancer, cardiovascular disease, and all- and bold action, ranging from the implementation of community cause mortality. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2011;20: 1089-1097.
and workplace health promotion programs to policies that affect 13. International Agency for Research on Cancer. IARC Monographs community planning, transportation, school-based physical on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. Volume 83: Alcohol activity, and food services. The tobacco control experience has Drinking. Lyon, France: IARC Press, 1988.
shown that policy and environmental changes at the national, 14. Secretan B, Straif K, Baan R, et al. A review of human carcinogens– state, and local levels are critical to achieving changes in indi- Part E: tobacco, areca nut, alcohol, coal smoke, and salted fish. Lancet Oncol. 2009;10: 1033-1034.
vidual behavior. Measures such as smoke-free laws and increases in cigarette excise taxes have been highly effective in deterring 15. Chen WY, Rosner B, Hankinson SE, Colditz GA, Willett WC. Moder-ate alcohol consumption during adult life, drinking patterns, and breast tobacco use. To avert an epidemic of obesity-related disease, sim- cancer risk. JAMA. 2011;306(17):1884-1890.
ilar purposeful changes in public policy and in the community Cancer Facts & Figures 2016 49
Eliminating disparities in the cancer burden among different treatment, with poverty as the overriding factor. According to the segments of the US population, defined in terms of socioeco- US Census Bureau, in 2014, 26% of blacks and 24% of Hispanics/ nomic status (income, education, insurance status, etc.), race/ Latinos lived below the poverty line, compared to 10% of non-His- ethnicity, geographic location, sex, and sexual orientation, is an panic whites. Moreover, 12% of blacks and 20% of Hispanics/ overarching goal of the American Cancer Society. The causes of Latinos were uninsured, compared to 8% of non-Hispanic whites.
health disparities within each of these groups are complex and Discrimination is another factor that contributes to racial/eth- include interrelated social, economic, cultural, environmental, nic disparities in cancer mortality. Racial and ethnic minorities and health system factors. However, disparities predominantly tend to receive lower-quality health care than non-Hispanic arise from inequities in work, wealth, education, housing, and whites even when insurance status, age, severity of disease, and overall standard of living, as well as social barriers to high-qual- health status are comparable. Social inequalities, including ity cancer prevention, early detection, and treatment services.
communication barriers and provider/patient assumptions, can affect interactions between patients and physicians and contrib- ute to miscommunication and/or delivery of substandard care.
People with lower socioeconomic status (SES) have higher cancer In addition to poverty and social discrimination, cancer occur- death rates than those with higher SES, regardless of demographic rence in a population may also be influenced by cultural and/or factors such as race/ethnicity. For example, cancer mortality rates inherited factors that decrease or increase risk. Individuals who among both black and non-Hispanic white men with 12 or fewer maintain a primarily plant-based diet or do not use tobacco years of education are almost 3 times higher than those of college because of cultural or religious beliefs have a lower risk of many graduates for all cancers combined because of limited access to cancers compared to non-Hispanic whites. For example, His- prevention, early detection, and treatment services.
panics and Asians have lower rates of lung cancer because they People with lower SES also have generally higher cancer inci- have historically been less likely to smoke (Table 9). Conversely, dence rates. This is in part because they are more likely to engage because these populations include a large number of recent in behaviors that increase cancer risk, such as using tobacco, immigrants, they have higher rates of cancers related to infec- not being physically active, and having an unhealthy diet, but tious agents (e.g., stomach, liver) because of higher prevalence of also due to higher prevalence of cancer-causing infections, infection in immigrant countries of origin. Genetic factors may workplace exposures, and other environmental exposures. Fac- also explain some differences in cancer incidence, such as the tors that contribute to a higher prevalence of cancer risk factors higher frequency of mutations in the breast cancer susceptibil- in this population include marketing strategies by tobacco com- ity genes BRCA1 and BRCA2 among women of Ashkenazi Jewish panies and fast food chains that target these populations and descent. However, it is important to note that genetic differences environmental and/or community factors that provide few associated with race or ethnicity make only a minor contribu- opportunities for physical activity and access to fresh fruits and tion to the disparate cancer burden between populations.
vegetables. In addition to higher rates of new cancer diagnoses, Following is a brief overview of the cancer burden for the four lower SES groups are less likely to survive after a cancer diagno- major minority groups in the US. It is important to note that sis because the disease is often detected at an advanced stage although cancer data in the US are primarily reported in terms and because they are less likely to receive standard treatment. of broad racial and ethnic categories, these populations are very Barriers to preventive care, early detection, and optimal treat- heterogeneous, with substantial variation in the cancer burden ment include inadequate health insurance; financial, structural, within each group. In addition, cancer information for several and personal barriers to health care; and low health literacy racial and ethnic groups, especially American Indians and rates. Progress in reducing cancer death rates has also been Alaska Natives (AIANs), is known to be incomplete due to mis- slower in people with lower SES because of the delay in the dis- classification on medical and death records. Although efforts semination of improved early detection and treatment in this have been made to collect more accurate information, rates pre- underserved population. sented for AIANs in particular likely do not represent the true cancer burden in this population. Racial and Ethnic Minorities
Non-Hispanic Black: Non-Hispanic black (henceforth black)
Disparities in the cancer burden among racial and ethnic minori- men have higher overall cancer incidence (592.3 per 100,000) ties largely reflect obstacles to receiving health care services and death (267.7) rates than any other major racial or ethnic related to cancer prevention, early detection, and high-quality group, 12% and 27% higher, respectively, than non-Hispanic 50 Cancer Facts & Figures 2016
Table 9. Incidence and Death Rates* for Selected Cancers by Site, Race, and Ethnicity, US, 2008-2012
Asian and Pacific
American Indian
and Alaska Native†
Colon & rectum Male Kidney & renal pelvis Male Liver & intrahepatic bile duct Male Lung & bronchus Male Mortality
All sites
Male
Colon & rectum Male Kidney & renal pelvis Male Liver & intrahepatic bile duct Male Lung & bronchus Male Hispanic origin is not mutual y exclusive from Asian/Pacific Islander or American Indian/Alaska Native. *Rates are per 100,000 population and age adjusted to the 2000
US standard population. †Data based on Indian Health Service Contract Health Service Delivery Areas. Incidence rates exclude data from Kansas.
Source: Incidence – North American Association of Central Cancer Registries, 2015. Mortality – US mortality data, National Center for Health Statistics, Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention, 2015.
American Cancer Society, Inc., Surveil ance Research, 2016 Cancer Facts & Figures 2016 51
Figure 5. Geographic Patterns in Lung Cancer Death Rates* by State, US, 2008-2012
Rate per 100,000 males
Rate per 100,000 females
*Rates adjusted to the 2000 US standard population.
Source: US Mortality Data, National Center for Health Statistics, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2015.
American Cancer Society, Inc., Surveillance Research, 2016 52 Cancer Facts & Figures 2016
whites (528.9 and 210.6) (Table 9). Cancer death rates ethnic population – 3 times higher than those among APIs, who in black men are twice those in Asian and Pacific Islanders have the lowest rates (Table 9, ). Kidney cancer death (128.4), who have the lowest rates. In particular, prostate cancer rates are highest among AIAN populations in the Northern and death rates in black men (47.2) are more than double those of any Southern Plains, while they are substantially lower in the East other group, and are 137% higher than non-Hispanic whites and Pacific Coast regions. Rates of lung cancer are also particu- (19.9). Black women have 14% higher cancer death rates than larly high among AIAN men and women in some regions. For non-Hispanic white women despite 6% lower incidence rates. example, AIAN men living in the Northern Plains or Alaska have See Cancer Facts & Figures for African Americans, available lung cancer incidence rates about 50% higher than whites living online at or more information on cancer in in those areas. Differences in the prevalence of smoking, obesity, black Americans.
and hypertension likely contribute to these disparities. Hispanic/Latino: Cancer patterns in Hispanics generally For information about American Cancer Society advocacy efforts
reflect those in immigrant countries of origin, but become more
dedicated to reducing the cancer burden among minority and similar to non-Hispanic white Americans across generations medically underserved populations, see "Advocacy" on .
due to acculturation. Hispanics have lower rates of the cancers that are most common in the US (female breast, colorectum, lung, and prostate), but among the highest rates of cancers asso-ciated with infectious agents. For example, compared to Cancer rates in the US vary by geographic area, with larger dif-non-Hispanic whites, cervical cancer incidence rates are 44% ferences for some cancer sites than others. Lung cancer, for higher, and liver and stomach cancer incidence rates are about example, shows the most striking variation by state (Figure 5). twice as high (Table 9). See Cancer Facts & Figures for Lung cancer death rates are more than 3-fold higher in Kentucky Hispanics/Latinos, available online a for (92 and 55 per 100,000 in men and women, respectively) – the more information.
state with the highest rates – than in Utah (26 and 16 per 100,000 in men and women, respectively), which has the lowest rates. Asian and Pacific Islander (API): Cancer patterns in APIs are
These differences reflect the substantial historic variation in similar to those in Hispanics (Table 9). APIs have the smoking prevalence among states, which continues today. For lowest overall cancer incidence and death rates, but among the example, smoking prevalence in adults in 2013 ranged from 10% highest rates of liver and stomach cancers, about double those in Utah to 27% in Kentucky and West Virginia. Some of this dif- among non-Hispanic whites. In contrast to Hispanics, however, ference reflects state tobacco control policies. Geographic APIs overall have the lowest cervical cancer incidence and mor- variations in cancer occurrence also reflect differences in envi- tality rates of all major racial/ethnic groups , although rates are ronmental exposures, socioeconomic factors related to elevated among some API subpopulations. For more informa- population demographics, and screening behaviors. There is lit- tion, see the special section o.
tle state variation in the occurrence of cancers that are less American Indian and Alaska Native (AIAN): AIANs have the
influenced by behavior and/or early detection tests, such as non- highest kidney cancer incidence and death rates of any racial or Hodgkin lymphoma (Table 4, ). The Global Fight against Cancer
The ultimate mission of the American Cancer Society is to elimi- Moreover, the global cancer burden is growing at an alarming nate cancer as a major health problem. Because cancer knows pace; in 2030 alone, about 21.7 million new cancer cases and 13.0 no boundaries, this mission extends around the world. Cancer is million cancer deaths are expected to occur, simply due to the an enormous global health burden, touching every region and growth and aging of the population. The future burden may be socioeconomic group. Today, cancer accounts for about 1 in further increased by the adoption of behaviors and lifestyles every 7 deaths worldwide – more than HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, associated with economic development and urbanization (e.g., and malaria combined. In 2012, there were an estimated 14.1 smoking, poor diet, physical inactivity, and reproductive pat- million cases of cancer diagnosed around the world and 8.2 mil- terns) in low- and middle-income countries. Tobacco use is a lion cancer deaths. More than 60% of cancer deaths occur in major cause of the increasing global burden of cancer as the low- and middle-income countries, many of which lack the med- number of smokers worldwide continues to grow.
ical resources and health systems to support the disease burden. Cancer Facts & Figures 2016 53
Worldwide Tobacco Use
empowering the world's cancer societies and anti-tobacco advo-cates. The Society's Global Cancer Control and Intramural Tobacco-related diseases are the most preventable cause of Research departments are raising awareness about the growing death worldwide, responsible for the deaths of approximately global cancer burden and promoting evidence-based cancer and half of all long-term tobacco users.
tobacco control programs.
• Each year, tobacco use is responsible for almost 6 mil- The Society works to reduce the global burden of cancer by pre- lion deaths, 80% of which are in low- and middle-income venting cancer, saving lives, diminishing suffering, catalyzing countries; by 2030, this number is expected to increase to 8 local responses, and shaping the global policy agenda. Our efforts focus on low- and middle-income countries.
• Between 2002 and 2030, tobacco-attributable deaths are expected to decrease by 9% in high-income countries, while Make cancer control a political and public health priority.
increasing by 100% (from 3.4 million to 6.8 million) in low- Noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) such as cancer, heart dis- and middle-income countries.
ease, and diabetes account for about 65% of the world's deaths. Although 67% of these deaths occur in low- and middle-income The first global public health treaty under the auspices of the countries, less than 3% of private and public health funding is World Health Organization, the Framework Convention on allocated to prevent and control NCDs in these areas. In Septem- Tobacco Control (FCTC), was unanimously adopted by the ber 2011, world leaders gathered at a special United Nations World Health Assembly on May 21, 2003, and subsequently High-level Meeting and adopted a Political Declaration that ele- entered into force as a legally binding accord for all ratifying vates cancer and other NCDs on the global health and states on February 27, 2005. The purpose of the treaty is to fight development agenda and includes key commitments to address the devastating health and economic effects of tobacco on a these diseases. In 2012, the decision-making body of the World global scale by requiring parties to adopt a comprehensive range Health Organization (WHO) approved a resolution calling for a of tobacco control measures. It features specific provisions to 25% reduction in premature deaths from NCDs by 2025 (also control both the global supply of and demand for tobacco, known as 25 by 25). This ambitious goal set the stage for the including the regulation of tobacco product contents, packag- adoption of a comprehensive framework aimed at monitoring ing, labeling, advertising, promotion, sponsorship, taxation, NCD risk factors (e.g., smoking prevalence) and indicators of illicit trade, youth access, exposure to secondhand tobacco increased access to breast and cervical cancer screening, pallia- smoke, and environmental and agricultural impacts. Parties to tive care, and vaccination coverage. At a United Nations summit the treaty are expected to strengthen national legislation, enact in September 2015, government leaders formally adopted the effective domestic tobacco control policies, and cooperate inter- Sustainable Development Goals, including a stand-alone target nationally to reduce global tobacco consumption. A number of on NCDs and a number of NCD-related targets. This is the first major tobacco-producing nations, including Argentina, Indone- time that NCDs have been included in these goals as a priority sia, Malawi, and the United States, have not ratified the treaty.
for all countries. To maintain the momentum for making cancer • As of November 2015, 180 out of 196 eligible parties have rati- and other NCDs a global priority, the Society collaborates with fied or acceded to the treaty, representing approximately 89% key partners, including the NCD Alliance, the Union for Interna- of the world's population.
tional Cancer Control, the WHO's International Agency for Research on Cancer, the NCD Roundtable, and the Taskforce on • About one-third of the world's population was covered by at Women and Non-Communicable Diseases. least one comprehensive tobacco control measure in 2014, up from about 15% in 2008.
Last year (2015) was also a critical time for making women's can- • The WHO estimates that 18% of the world's population lives cers a global health and development priority. Cervical and breast in smoke-free environments.
cancers are the most commonly diagnosed cancers among women in most areas of the world. Focusing on fighting these • Although tobacco excise tax increases are among the most cancers is a priority for the American Cancer Society, not only cost-effective tobacco control strategies, only 10% of the world because they affect so many women, but also because cost-effec- population is covered by comprehensive tobacco tax policy.
tive and proven prevention, screening, and treatment options exist. To strengthen the case for greater investments in cervical The Role of the American Cancer
cancer prevention and control, the Society commissioned Har- vard University's T.H. Chan School of Public Health to estimate the cost of achieving comprehensive global cervical cancer pre- With more than a century of experience in cancer control, the vention over the next decade in low- and middle-income American Cancer Society is uniquely positioned to help in lead- countries. The study found that scaling up comprehensive pre- ing the global fight against cancer and tobacco by assisting and vention steadily from 2015 through 2024 would cost $18.3 billion 54 Cancer Facts & Figures 2016
($8.6 billion for vaccination and $9.7 billion for screening) and morphine available for the first time in several years and set up that 480 million women would be screened and 290 million girls a local production system in 27 teaching hospitals that lowered would be vaccinated.
the price for patients by 80% to 90%. The Society continues to support the national morphine production facility in Uganda, Develop cancer control capacity globally. Many governments
which has been operating since 2010, and is supporting Kenya to in low- and middle-income countries are ill-prepared to ade- replicate the model in the national hospital in Nairobi. The Soci- quately address the increasing burden of cancer. In many cases, ety is also training health workers in more than 25 teaching and civil society actors (nongovernmental organizations, institu- referral hospitals across the 5 countries through the Pain-Free tions, and individuals) are also not yet fully engaged in cancer Hospital Initiative, a 1-year hospital-wide quality improvement control efforts.
initiative designed to change clinical practice by integrating The Society's Global Capacity Development program is intended effective, high-quality pain treatment into hospital-based to strengthen the civil society response to cancer in focus coun- tries around the world, taking advantage of more than 100 years Increase awareness about the global cancer burden. The
of institutional experience and expertise in cancer control. This Society continues to work with global collaborators to increase program provides intensive and culturally appropriate techni- awareness about the growing global cancer and tobacco bur- cal assistance to targeted organizations in low- and dens and their impact on low- and middle-income countries. In middle-income countries. The program's areas of intervention addition to print publications, the Society website include the basic elements of organizational capacity develop- provides cancer information to millions of individuals through- ment, such as governance, financial management, fundraising, out the world. In 2014, 40% of visits to the website came from program design and management, and monitoring and outside the US. Information is currently available in English, Spanish, Chinese, Bengali, Hindi, Korean, Urdu, and Make effective pain treatment available to all in need.
Untreated moderate to severe pain, which is experienced by Visit the Society's Global Health program website a about 80% of people with advanced cancer, is a consistent fea- and for more information on the ture of cancer care in resource-limited settings. Improved global cancer burden. In addition, recent publications by the access to essential pain medicines is arguably the easiest and Intramural Research department include: least expensive need to meet, would do the most to relieve suf-fering, and may also extend survival, according to recent data. • Global Cancer Facts & Figures, 3rd Edition) The Society has projects in Nigeria, Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda, • The Cancer Atlas, Second Edition) and Swaziland to improve access to essential pain medicines. In • The Tobacco Atlas, Fifth Edition) Nigeria, the Society collaborated with the government to make The American Cancer Society
In 1913, 10 physicians and 5 laypeople founded the American How the American Cancer Society
Society for the Control of Cancer. Its purpose was to raise aware- Is Organized
ness about cancer symptoms, treatment, and prevention; to investigate the causes of cancer; and to compile cancer statis- The American Cancer Society, Inc., is a 501(c)(3) nonprofit corpo- tics. Later renamed the American Cancer Society, Inc., the ration governed by a Board of Directors that sets policy, organization now works with approximately 2.5 million volun- establishes long-term goals, monitors general operations, and teers to save lives by helping people stay well and get well, by approves organizational outcomes and allocation of resources. finding cures, and by fighting back against the disease. We com- The Society's structure includes a central corporate office in bine our relentless passion with the wisdom of over a century of Atlanta, Georgia, as well as regional and local offices supporting experience to make this vision a reality, and we get results. 11 geographic Divisions, and more than 300 local offices in those Thanks in part to our contributions, more than 1.7 million can- Divisions. The corporate office is responsible for overall strate- cer deaths have been averted in the US in the past two decades. gic planning; corporate support services such as human resources, financial management, IT, etc.; development and implementation of global and nationwide endeavors such as our groundbreaking research program, our global program, and our Cancer Facts & Figures 2016 55
24-hour call center; and technical support and materials for More than 5 million new cases of skin cancer will be diagnosed Divisions and their local offices.
in the US this year. That's why the American Cancer Society and other members of the National Council on Skin Cancer Preven- Our Divisions and local offices are organized to engage communi- tion have designated the Friday before Memorial Day as Don't ties in the cancer fight, delivering patient programs and services Fry Day. The Society promotes skin cancer prevention and and raising money at the local level. Offices are strategically awareness educational messages in support of Don't Fry Day located around the country in an effort to maximize the impact of and year-round.
our efforts and be as efficient as possible with the money donated to the Society to help finish the fight against cancer.
The Society also offers many products to employers and other systems to help their employees stay well and reduce their can- In addition, the Society has a nonprofit, nonpartisan 501(c)(4) cer risk, too. These include: advocacy affiliate called the American Cancer Society Cancer Action NetworkSM (ACS CAN). Headquartered in Washington, • The Workplace Health Assessment program, which surveys
DC but including staff and volunteers in all 50 states, ACS CAN a company's health and wellness practices to provide recom- uses applied policy analysis, direct lobbying, grassroots action, mended strategies for increasing effectiveness of current and media advocacy to ensure elected officials nationwide pass programs, developing target initiatives to meet employees' and effectively implement laws that help save lives from cancer.
needs, and strengthening the culture of health for the organi-zation. Targeted behaviors include organizational readiness, tobacco control, cancer screening, healthy eating, physical The Society relies on the strength of millions of dedicated volun- activity, and cancer care.
teers. Supported by professional staff, Society volunteers drive • The Freshstart® group-based tobacco cessation program,
every part of our mission. They raise funds to support crucial which is designed to help employees plan a successful quit research, provide cancer patients rides to and from treatments, attempt by providing essential information, skills for coping and give one-on-one support to those facing a cancer diagnosis with cravings, and social support – and that's just the beginning.
• The Content Subscription Service, an electronic toolkit
subscription offered by the Society to employers that sup- How the American Cancer Society
ports the health and wellness needs of employees with Saves Lives
information about cancer prevention and early detection, as well as support services and resources for those facing the As an organization of 2.5 million strong, the American Cancer Society is committed to a world free from the pain and suffering of cancer.
• Healthy Living, a monthly electronic newsletter produced by
the American Cancer Society that teaches the importance of Prevention and Early Detection making healthy lifestyle choices. The e-newsletter focuses on The American Cancer Society is doing everything in our power exercising, eating better, and maintaining a healthy weight. to prevent cancer. We are diligent in encouraging cancer screen- Healthy Living is available in both English and Spanish, and ings for early detection and promote healthy lifestyles by bringing the content has been edited by the Society's scientific staff to attention to obesity, healthy diets, physical activity, and avoid- ensure that the most up-to-date and accurate information is ing tobacco.
being provided.
• The 10-week Active For LifeSM online program, which uses
evidence-based practices like individual goal-setting, social The Quit For Life® Program is the nation's leading tobacco ces-
support, and frequent logging of activity to help employees sation program, offered by 27 states and more than 700 employers become more physically active on a regular basis and health plans throughout the US. A collaboration between • Tobacco Policy Planner, an online assessment of company
the American Cancer Society and Alere Health, the program is policies, benefits, and programs related to tobacco con- built on the organizations' more than 35 years of combined trol. Following the completion of the survey, the company experience in tobacco cessation. The Quit For Life Program receives a detailed report that includes information needed employs an evidence-based combination of physical, psycholog- to help create new – or enhance existing – workplace tobacco ical, and behavioral strategies to enable participants to take policies, programs, and benefits. The resource can assist responsibility for and overcome their addiction to tobacco. A employers in creating a safe, tobacco-free environment that critical mix of medication support, phone-based cognitive enhances employee well-being.
behavioral coaching, text messaging, web-based learning, and support tools produces an average 6-month quit rate of 49%.
56 Cancer Facts & Figures 2016
• Nutrition and Physical Activity Planner, an online assess-
be tested. The Society also continues to encourage the early ment of company policies, benefits, and programs related detection of breast cancer through public awareness and other to eating better and being more physically active. Following efforts targeting poor and underserved communities.
the completion of the survey, the company receives a detailed report that includes information needed to help create new-or enhance existing workplace policies, programs and benefits.
For the more than 1.6 million cancer patients diagnosed this • The Meeting Well guidebook, which offers companies
year and the nearly 14.5 million US cancer survivors, the Ameri- healthy food ideas and suggestions for physical activity that can Cancer Society is available 24 hours a day, seven days a week energize meeting participants and demonstrate how easy it to provide – among other things – the latest cancer information, can be to live a healthier lifestyle every day emotional support, or free lodging when patients need treat-ment away from home. For the majority of Americans who do not smoke, the most important ways to reduce cancer risk are to maintain a healthy Information, 24 Hours a Day, 7 Days a Week
weight, be physically active on a regular basis, and eat a mostly The American Cancer Society is available 24 hours a day, 7 days plant-based diet, consisting of a variety of vegetables and fruit, a week online a and by calling 1-800-227-2345. Callers whole grains, and limited amounts of red and processed meats. are connected with a cancer information specialist who can The Society publishes guidelines on nutrition and physical activ- help them locate a hospital, understand cancer and treatment ity for cancer prevention in order to review the accumulating options, learn what to expect and how to plan, address insur- scientific evidence on diet and cancer; to synthesize this evi- ance concerns, find financial resources, find a local support dence into clear, informative recommendations for the general group, and more. The Society can also help people who speak public; to promote healthy individual behaviors and environ- languages other than English or Spanish find the assistance ments that support healthy eating and physical activity; and, they need, offering services in more than 200 languages.
ultimately, to reduce cancer risk. Those guidelines form the Information on every aspect of the cancer experience, from pre- foundation for the Society's communication, worksite, school, vention to survivorship, is also available through the and community strategies designed to encourage and support Society's website. The site contains in-depth information on people in making healthy lifestyle behavior choices.
every major cancer type, as well as on treatments, side effects, caregiving, and coping.
Finding cancer at its earliest, most treatable stage gives patients The Society also publishes a wide variety of brochures and books the greatest chance of survival. To help the public and health that cover a multitude of topics, from patient education, quality care providers make informed decisions about cancer screen- of life, and caregiving issues to healthy living. Visi ing, the American Cancer Society publishes a variety of early or a complete list of Society books that are available detection guidelines. Those guidelines are assessed regularly to ensure that recommendations are based on the most current scientific evidence.
The Society publishes three peer-reviewed journals for health care providers and researchers: Cancer, Cancer Cytopathology, The Society currently provides screening guidelines for cancers and CA: A Cancer Journal for Clinicians. Visio of the breast, cervix, colorectum, endometrium, lung, and pros- learn about the journals and their content.
tate, as well as general recommendations for a cancer-related component of a periodic checkup to examine the thyroid, oral Day-to-day Help and Emotional Support
cavity, skin, lymph nodes, testicles, and ovaries.
The American Cancer Society can help cancer patients and their families find the resources they need to make decisions about Throughout its history, the Society has implemented a number the day-to-day challenges that can come from a cancer diagno- of aggressive awareness campaigns targeting the public and sis, such as transportation to and from treatment, financial and health care professionals. Campaigns to increase usage of Pap insurance needs, and lodging when treatment is needed away testing and mammography have contributed to a 70% decrease from home. The Society also connects people with others who in cervical cancer death rates since 1969 and a 36% decline in have been through similar experiences to offer emotional breast cancer death rates since 1989. Building on previous and ongoing colorectal cancer prevention and early detection efforts, the Society joined the National Colorectal Cancer Roundtable in Help navigating the health care system: Learning how to nav-
its 80% by 2018 initiative in 2013. The bold goal of this campaign igate the cancer journey and the health care system can be is to increase the rate of regular colorectal cancer screening overwhelming for anyone, but it is particularly difficult for those among adults 50 and older to 80% by 2018, with an emphasis on who are medically underserved, those who experience language economically disadvantaged individuals, who are least likely to or health literacy barriers, and those with limited resources. The Cancer Facts & Figures 2016 57
American Cancer Society Patient Navigator Program reaches ing with family and friends, finding resources, and more. Visit those most in need. The largest oncology-focused patient navi- to learn more about the classes that are gator program in the country, it has specially trained patient navigators at more than 120 sites across the nation. Patient navi- Hair-loss and mastectomy products: Some women wear wigs,
gators can help: find transportation to and from cancer-related hats, breast forms, and special bras to help cope with the effects appointments; assist with medical financial issues, including of a mastectomy and hair loss. The American Cancer Society insurance navigation; identify community resources; and pro- "tlc" Tender Loving Care® publication offers affordable hair loss vide information on a patient's cancer diagnosis and treatment and mastectomy products, as well as advice on how to use those process. In 2014, 56,000 people relied on the Patient Navigator products. The "tlc"TM products and catalogs may be ordered Program to help them through their diagnosis and treatment. online at or by calling 1-800-850-9445. All proceeds The Society collaborates with a variety of organizations, includ- from product sales go back into the Society's survivorship pro- ing the National Cancer Institute's Center to Reduce Cancer grams and services.
Health Disparities, the Center for Medicare and Medicaid Ser-
vices, numerous cancer treatment centers, and others to Help with appearance-related side effects of treatment: The
implement and evaluate this program.
Look Good Feel Better® program is a collaboration of the Ameri-can Cancer Society, the Personal Care Products Council Transportation to treatment: Having cancer is hard. Finding a
Foundation, and the Professional Beauty Association that helps ride to treatment shouldn't be. The American Cancer Society women with cancer manage the appearance-related side effects Road To Recovery® program provides free rides to cancer of treatment. The free program engages certified, licensed patients to and from treatments and cancer-related appoint- beauty professionals trained as Look Good Feel Better volun- ments. Trained volunteer drivers donate their time and the use teers to teach simple techniques on skin care, makeup, and nail of their personal vehicles to help patients get to the treatments care, and give practical tips on hair loss, wigs, and head cover- they need. In 2014, the American Cancer Society provided more ings. Information and materials are also available for men and than 341,000 rides to cancer patients.
teens. To learn more, visit the Look Good Feel Better website at Lodging during treatment: The American Cancer Society
r call 1-800-395-LOOK (1-800-395-5665).
Hope Lodge® program provides free overnight lodging to patients Finding hope and inspiration: People with cancer and their
and their caregivers who have to travel away from home for loved ones do not have to face cancer alone. The American Can- treatment. Not having to worry about where to stay or how to cer Society Cancer Survivors Network® is a free online community pay for it allows patients to focus on what's important: getting created by and for people living with cancer and their families. well. In 2014, the 31 Hope Lodge locations provided more than At hey can get and give support, connect with 276,000 nights of free lodging to 44,000 patients and caregivers others, find resources, and tell their own story through personal – saving them $36 million in hotel expenses. Through its Hotel expressions like music and art.
Partners Program, the Society also partners with local hotels across the country to provide free or discounted lodging to patients and their caregivers in communities without a Hope Research is at the heart of the American Cancer Society's mis- Lodge facility.
sion. For 70 years, the Society has been finding answers that save Breast cancer support: Through the American Cancer Society
lives – from changes in lifestyle to new approaches in therapies Reach To Recovery® program, trained breast cancer survivor vol- to improving cancer patients' quality of life. No single nongov- unteers are matched to people facing or living with breast ernmental, not-for-profit organization in the US has invested cancer. Program volunteers give cancer patients and their fam- more to find the causes and cures of cancer than the Society. We ily members the opportunity to ask questions, talk about their relentlessly pursue the answers that help us understand how to fears and concerns, and express their feelings. The Reach To prevent, detect, and treat all cancer types. We combine the Recovery volunteers have been there, and they offer understand- world's best and brightest researchers with the world's largest, ing, support, and hope. In 2014, the program assisted nearly oldest, and most effective community-based anticancer organi- zation to put answers into action.
Cancer education classes: The I Can Cope® online educational
The Society's comprehensive research program consists of program is available free to people facing cancer and their fami- extramural grants, as well as intramural programs in epidemiol- lies and friends. The program consists of self-paced classes that ogy, surveillance and health services research, behavioral can be taken anytime, day or night. People are welcome to take research, economic and health policy research, and statistics as few or as many classes as they like. Among the topics offered and evaluation. Intramural research programs are led by the are information about cancer, managing treatments and side Society's own staff scientists.
effects, healthy eating during and after treatment, communicat- 58 Cancer Facts & Figures 2016
Cancer Control and Prevention Research: This research pro-
The American Cancer Society's Extramural Research program gram focuses on the study of behaviors (of individuals, health currently supports research and training in a wide range of can- care professionals, or health care systems) and how interven- cer-related disciplines at more than 200 institutions. As of tions to change these behaviors or systems can reduce cancer August 1, 2015, the Society is funding 816 research and training risk, help detect cancer early, better inform treatment decisions, grants totaling more than $441 million. Grant applications are or improve the quality of life of patients and families. Special solicited through a nationwide competition and are subjected to emphasis is placed on reducing disparities in disadvantaged a rigorous external peer-review process, ensuring that only the most promising research is funded. The Society primarily funds Health Professional Training in Cancer Control: The goals of
investigators early in their research careers, thus giving the best this program are to encourage highly qualified individuals to and the brightest a chance to explore cutting-edge ideas at a enter careers in cancer prevention and control practice and to time when they might not find funding elsewhere. The Extramu- accelerate the application of research findings in this area. ral Research department is comprised of six programs that span Toward that end, this program provides grants in support of areas from the most basic research to public policy.
nurses, physicians, and social workers to pursue training in can- Molecular Genetics and Biochemistry of Cancer: This cer prevention and control programs that meet high standards
research program focuses on the genes involved in cancer and
for excellence.
how alterations in those genes (mutations, deletions, and ampli- In addition to funding across the continuum of cancer research fications) play a role in the cancer process. Also of interest is the and training, from basic science to clinical and quality-of-life examination of molecules involved in cancer (proteins, nucleic research, the Society also focuses on needs that are unmet by acids, lipids, and carbohydrates) and how alterations in those other funding organizations. For instance, for 10 years, the Soci- molecules affect the disease. The program highlights potential ety supported a targeted research program to address the causes targets for new cancer treatments.
of higher cancer mortality in the poor and medically under- Cancer Cell Biology and Metastasis: The primary goal of this
served. To date, 47 Nobel Prize winners have received grant program is to provide an understanding of the nature of cancer support from the Society, most of them early in their careers, a cells so they can be more effectively detected and eliminated. number unmatched in the nonprofit sector and proof that the Emphases include understanding the fundamental controls of organization's approach to funding young researchers truly both normal cells and cancer cells, with a focus on how cells helps launch high-quality scientific careers.
regulate when to grow, when to divide and when to die; how and when to develop from one cell type into another; how cells relate to the local environment and to other cells; and how cells regu- In 1946, under the direction of E. Cuyler Hammond, ScD, a small late when and how to move from one site to another. To reach the group of researchers was created at the American Cancer Soci- program goals, a wide variety of cell and tumor types are uti- ety. Since that time, the Society's Intramural Research program lized so that all aspects of cell biology can be examined.
has grown into 5 programs that conduct and publish high-qual-ity research to advance the understanding of cancer and Preclinical and Translational Cancer Research: This evaluate Society programs to ensure that they are effective and
research program focuses on the interface between laboratory reaching the cancer patients that are most in need.
investigations and human testing. The scope of the program includes investigations of the role of infectious diseases in can- Epidemiology: The Epidemiology Research program seeks
cer, the synthesis and discovery of cancer drugs, the creation to reduce the cancer burden by conducting large, nationwide and use of cancer animal models, and the role of individual or prospective studies that advance our understanding of cancer groups of genes in different types of cancer.
etiology and survival to inform cancer prevention and control programs, policies, and guidelines. To accomplish this work, Clinical Cancer Research, Nutrition, and Immunology: This
in 1952 Hammond pioneered the idea of working with the program focuses on investigations including basic, preclinical, extensive network of Society volunteers nationwide to enroll clinical, and epidemiological studies. Areas of interest include and follow large cohorts to provide insights into the causes of new modalities for cancer prevention, diagnosis, and treatment. cancer. The first cohort, known as the Hammond-Horn Study, In addition, the program seeks to improve understanding of was conducted from 1952 through 1955 and provided the first cancer-related inflammatory responses and the use of the US prospective evidence to confirm the association between immune system for cancer prevention and therapy. The program cigarette smoking and death from lung cancer, cardiovascular also focuses on increased understanding of the effects of nutri- disease, and other conditions in men. The success of this early tion and the environment on cancer prevention, initiation, study established the foundation on which the Society invested progression, and treatment.
in a series of large prospective studies – the Cancer Prevention Cancer Facts & Figures 2016 59
Studies – and in the creation and growth of the Epidemiology cohort is aging and a new cohort is essential to continue explor- Research program. Indeed, with help from more than 150,000 ing the effects of changing exposures and to provide greater Society volunteers to enroll and collect information from more opportunity to integrate biological and genetic factors into than 2.2 million US men and women, findings from the Ham- studies of other cancer risk factors. Therefore, following on the mond-Horn Study, Cancer Prevention Study-I (CPS-I, 1959-1972), long history of partnering with Society volunteers and support- and CPS-II (1982-ongoing) have played a major role in cancer ers, CPS-3 was established. From 2006 through 2013, more than prevention initiatives at the Society, as well as in other national 304,000 men and women, ages 30 to 65, were enrolled in CPS-3, and international efforts. For example: and nearly all provided a blood sample at the time of enrollment. • The Hammond-Horn Study, which linked smoking to lung Although over the past decade very large cohorts have been cancer and higher overall death rates, contributed to the established in some European and Asian countries, CPS-3 is the Surgeon General's landmark 1964 conclusion that smoking only nationwide study of this magnitude in the US. The blood causes lung cancer and helped drive a decline in adult smok- specimens and questionnaire data collected from CPS-3 partici- ing rates to less than 20% today. American Cancer Society pants will provide unique opportunities for research in the epidemiologic studies continue to document the ongoing United States.
health impact of smoking. In 2014, the Surgeon General used Surveillance and Health Services Research: The Surveillance
our results to show that more than 480,000 Americans die and Health Services Research (SHSR) program analyzes and dis- each year from smoking cigarettes.
seminates data on cancer occurrence, risk factors, prevention, • CPS-I provided the first epidemiologic evidence that obesity early detection, treatment, and outcomes to strengthen the sci- increases risk of premature death, and subsequent studies entific basis for cancer prevention and control nationally and from CPS-II helped to establish the link between obesity and globally. Researchers in the SHSR program produce Cancer Facts death from breast, colorectal, and other cancers.
& Figures, published since 1951, and the accompanying Cancer • In the early 1990s, CPS-II was the first prospective study Statistics article, published in CA: A Cancer Journal for Clinicians to find a link between regular aspirin use and lower risk of nce 1967. These publications are the most colorectal cancer, a finding confirmed by many later studies. widely cited sources for cancer statistics and are available on the These results opened the door to ongoing studies in the US Society's website at and in hard copy from and internationally to find out if aspirin might lower the risk Society Division offices.
of other cancers and to better understand the overall risks In addition, SHSR staff produces seven supplemental Cancer and benefits of aspirin use.
Facts & Figures reports with accompanying Cancer Statistics • Our studies showing that high red and processed meat articles. Some of these publications focus on a specific cancer and alcohol intake, low physical activity, and longer sitting site (e.g., breast) or subpopulation (e.g., Hispanics). Cancer Pre- time increase the risk of cancer or mortality have contrib- vention & Early Detection Facts & Figures provides the prevalence uted to the scientific evidence used to develop the Society's of cancer risk factors and screening, along with Society recom- Guidelines on Nutrition and Physical Activity for Cancer mendations, policy initiatives, and evidence-based cancer Prevention. Moreover, findings from CPS-II were used to control programs. In addition, staff collaborates with the Inter- demonstrate the lifesaving potential of a lifestyle consistent national Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) to publish Global with our guidelines.
Cancer Facts & Figures, as well as joining with additional inter- • Findings from CPS-II contributed substantially to the scien- national collaborators to produce The Cancer Atlas.
tific evidence associating increasing levels of specific types Surveillance epidemiologists also conduct and publish high- of air pollution with higher deaths rates from cardiovascular quality epidemiologic research in order to advance the disease and lung cancer. These studies are cited prominently understanding of cancer. Since 1998, Society epidemiologists by both the Environmental Protection Agency and World have collaborated with the National Cancer Institute, the Cen- Health Organization in policies and recommendations for US ters for Disease Control and Prevention, the National Center for and worldwide air pollution limits.
Health Statistics, and the North American Association of Cen- • CPS-II data and biospecimens have been included in the tral Cancer Registries to produce the Annual Report to the identification or validation of nearly every confirmed breast, Nation on the Status of Cancer, a highly cited, peer-reviewed prostate, and pancreatic cancer genetic susceptibility variant journal article that reports current information related to can- known to date. This work has led to a better understanding of cer rates and trends in the US. Other research topics include the heritable component of these cancers.
exploring socioeconomic, racial, and geographic disparities in cancer risk factors, screening, and occurrence; describing global While landmark findings from the CPS-II cohort have informed cancer trends; generating scientific evidence to support Society multiple areas of public health policy and clinical practice, this 60 Cancer Facts & Figures 2016
priority areas for cancer prevention, control, and advocacy; and but economic solutions – such as taxation and better trade and demonstrating the association between public health interven- investment policies – are also among the most effective and least tions, such as tobacco control, and cancer incidence and expensive solutions. Major donors in global health, such as the mortality. Recent surveillance studies have reported the identi- Bloomberg Philanthropies, the Bill & Melinda Gates Founda- fication of colorectal cancer "hotspots" where death rates are tion, and the US National Institutes of Health, supported this particularly high; an increase in colorectal cancer screening effort by granting the ITCR program additional funding.
among low-income individuals following the elimination of Due to the high demand for the type of economic and policy anal- cost-sharing for preventive services by the Affordable Care Act; ysis generated by the ITCR program, the Society's leadership the public health impact of achieving the 80% colorectal cancer made a strategic decision in early 2013 to expand the program to screening rate by 2018 among adults 50 and older; cancer death the areas of nutrition and physical activity, and change its name rates by US congressional district; and global patterns in smok- to the EHPR program. Moreover, the team is increasingly apply- ing related to tobacco control policies.
ing its expertise to a number of cancer-related challenges, Health Services Research (HSR) activities began in the late including the economic and policy aspects of additional risk fac- 1990s, with the primary objective of performing high-quality, tors, patient access to potentially lifesaving medicines, and the high-impact research to evaluate disparities in cancer treat- direct and indirect costs of cancer and its treatment. The dis- ment and outcomes in support of the Society's mission to reduce semination of this research comes in multiple forms, including health care inequalities. Researchers in the HSR program use publications in high-impact, peer-reviewed scientific journals; secondary data sources such as the National Cancer Data Base the release of public scientific reports; and local, national, and (NCDB), a hospital-based cancer registry jointly sponsored by international capacity-building programs with governments, the American Cancer Society and the American College of Sur- international governmental organizations, and civil society.
geons. The NCDB has been key to the program's research on the The flagship service publication of the EHPR program is The impact of insurance on cancer diagnosis, treatment, and out- Tobacco Atlas, which is produced in collaboration with the Soci- comes, as well as for broader cancer treatment patterns. Other ety's Global Health department and the World Lung Foundation. data sources include the SEER-Medicare database, a linkage of The Tobacco Atlas, Fifth Edition and its corresponding website, population-based cancer registry data with Medicare claims ere released at the 16th World Conference on data, and the Medical Expenditure Panel Survey Data linked Tobacco or Health (WCTOH) in March 2015 in Abu Dhabi, United with National Health Interview Survey Data. The findings from Arab Emirates, and will be available in six other languages – the Health Services Research group have been instrumental in French, Spanish, Portuguese, Chinese, Mandarin, and Arabic. the Society's and the American Cancer Society Cancer Action Network's (ACS CAN) support of the Affordable Care Act (ACA). Behavioral Research Center: The American Cancer Society
Recent studies include the effect of the ACA on receipt of preven- was one of the first organizations to recognize the importance of tive services; the benefit of radiation therapy in the treatment of behavioral and psychosocial factors in the prevention and control lymph node positive prostate cancer; racial disparities in treat- of cancer and to fund extramural research in this area. In 1995, the ment and outcomes for men with early stage breast cancer; and Society established the Behavioral Research Center (BRC) within treatment disparities associated with geographic distribution of the Intramural Research department. The BRC's work currently oncologists and travel distance.
focuses on cancer survivorship, quality of life, tobacco control, and health disparities. The BRC's ongoing projects include: Economic and Health Policy Research: The predecessor of the
Economic and Health Policy Research (EHPR) program, the
• Studies of the quality of life of cancer survivors, which include International Tobacco Control Research (ITCR) program, was the American Cancer Society Study of Cancer Survivors-I created in 2006 to support collaborative tobacco control efforts (SCS-I), a nationwide longitudinal study of a cohort of more involving the Society and numerous international organizations than 3,000 cancer survivors that explores the physical and and academic institutions such as the WHO Tobacco Free Initia- psychosocial adjustment to cancer and identifies factors tive, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the affecting quality of life. Results from this research have Campaign for Tobacco-Free Kids, Johns Hopkins University, and informed the Society's informational materials and support the University of Illinois, among others. The ITCR program programs for cancer patients, survivors, and their loved ones.
focused on economic and policy research in tobacco control and • Studies of family caregivers, which include a nationwide research capacity building for the collection and analysis of eco- longitudinal study of a cohort of more than 1,500 cancer care- nomic data to provide the evidence base for tobacco control, givers that explores the impact of the family's involvement in particularly in low- and middle-income countries. This was an cancer care on the quality of life of the cancer survivor and important investment by the Society because not only do eco- nomic factors contribute greatly to the global tobacco epidemic, Cancer Facts & Figures 2016 61
• A study of side effects of cancer treatment, such as pain, expertise and assistance are available to Society staff at the Cor- fatigue, or depression, which often go underreported and/or porate Center in Atlanta, Georgia, and across the Society's 11 undertreated. Data from this collaboration between the Soci- ety, the National Cancer Institute, and the American College SEC staff designs and conducts process and outcome evalua- of Surgeons could play an important role in improving symp- tions of Society programs, projects, and initiatives using focus tom control, which would ultimately lead to improvements in groups, structured and semi-structured interviews, and online quality of life, functioning, and treatment adherence.
surveys. The SEC continues to be engaged in evaluations of the • Studies to identify and prioritize gaps in information and Society's externally funded community-based cancer preven- resources for 1,250 breast, colorectal, and prostate cancer tion initiatives. Working with the Society's Cancer Control survivors as they transition from active treatment under the department, the SEC secured funding from the CDC to create a care of the oncology team back to the community care set- national HPV roundtable and is providing evaluation and opera- ting. Research results will inform interventions by the Society tional support to initiatives aimed at increasing HPV vaccination and others by describing the issues cancer survivors continue rates among adolescents. The SEC also partners with the Behav- to face after their treatment ends, the key variables that inter- ioral Research Center and the Society's Cancer Control ventions should target, and the best time to intervene.
department in the systematic evaluation of all Society survivor- • Studies investigating how social, psychological, and other ship and quality-of-life programs, in the development of factors impact smokers' motivation and ability to quit in guidelines for support of cancer survivors who have completed order to improve existing Society programs for smoking ces- their cancer treatments, and in developing and evaluating fund- sation (e.g., the Freshstart and the Great American Smokeout® raising activities in support of these programs. The SEC has programs) or to develop new technology-based interventions partnered with the Surveillance and Health Services Research for smokers who seek cessation assistance program to further analyze the geographical distribution of • Contributions to the development of a National Cancer cancer and the needs of cancer patients with the goal of provid- Survivorship Resource Cente), ing information in support of American Cancer Society mission meant to advance survivorship as a distinct phase of cancer and advocacy programming. The SEC and SHSR recently com- care, promote healthy behaviors to reduce long-term and late puted and published estimated mortality rates for selected effects of cancer and its treatment, improve surveillance and cancer for each US congressional district.
screening practices to detect the return of cancer, and pro- vide primary care clinicians with survivorship clinical care guidelines for their patients with a history of breast, prostate, Conquering cancer is as much a matter of public policy as scien- colorectal, or head and neck cancer tific discovery. Lawmakers play a critical role in determining how much progress we make as a country to defeat cancer – • Studies to better understand cancer prevention and control whether it's advocating for quality, affordable health care for all behavior in underserved populations and identify effective Americans, increasing funding for cancer research and pro- strategies for connecting these groups to cancer information, grams, improving quality of life for patients and their families, programs, and services or enacting laws and policies that help communities to promote • Research to identify, test, and disseminate evidence-based good health. The American Cancer Society Cancer Action Net- behavioral interventions that are appropriate and effective for work (ACS CAN), the Society's nonprofit, nonpartisan advocacy underserved populations to help achieve cancer health equity affiliate, works with elected officials to achieve these goals.
Statistics and Evaluation Center: The mission of the Statistics
Created in 2001, ACS CAN is the force behind a powerful grass- and Evaluation Center (SEC) is to deliver valid, reliable, accu- roots movement uniting and empowering cancer patients, rate, and timely information to American Cancer Society staff survivors, caregivers, and their families to fight back against for evidence-based decision making that ensures the Society cancer. As the nation's leading voice advocating for public poli- continues to provide effective, high-quality programs. Staffed by cies that are helping to defeat cancer, ACS CAN works to professional statisticians and evaluators, the SEC has 3 main encourage elected officials and candidates to make the fight responsibilities: 1) to provide leadership on evaluations of Soci- against cancer a top national priority. In recent years, ACS CAN ety mission and income delivery programs, including study has successfully worked to pass and implement laws at the fed- design, data analysis, and report preparation; 2) to provide oper- eral, state, and local levels that: assure cancer patients access to ational support for surveys and other data collection related to adequate and affordable health insurance coverage, increase Society constituents and consumers; and 3) to support the funding for groundbreaking cancer research; improve access to broader Society mission through information integration, prevention and early detection measures, treatment, and follow- including mapping and return on investment studies. SEC up care; and improve quality of life for cancer patients.
62 Cancer Facts & Figures 2016
Some of ACS CAN's recent advocacy accomplishments on behalf is now working to expedite full implementation of the law, of cancer patients are outlined in the following sections.
including the regulation of new and emerging products.
Access to Care
• Leading efforts to pass comprehensive smoke-free laws –cur- rently covering about half of the US population – including ACS CAN successfully advocated for the enactment of key 24 states, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, the US Virgin patient protections in the Affordable Care Act (ACA) that elimi- Islands, and countless local jurisdictions requiring all work- nated insurance coverage exclusions, prevented pre-existing places, restaurants, and bars to be smoke-free condition exclusions, eliminated caps on annual and lifetime coverage benefits, and removed copays for key cancer preventive • Working to increase federal and state taxes on all tobacco services and early detection screenings like mammography and products and defending against tax rollbacks. The average colonoscopy. The legislation also required coverage of routine state tax rate for cigarettes rose from $1.54 at the end of 2014 care for participants in clinical trials, and created a new dedi- to $1.60 in 2015 (current as of September 2015) cated Prevention and Public Health Fund, providing billions of • Working to increase and protect state funding for tobacco dollars each year for national and community-based prevention efforts. Finally, the legislation provided for the expansion of • Continuing its role as an intervener in the long-pending Medicaid to cover low-income individuals and families who pre- legal review of the federal government's lawsuit against the viously lacked any access to affordable insurance coverage.
tobacco industry, in which specific manufacturers were The organization continues to monitor implementation of this convicted under the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Orga- important law to ensure: nizations statute for decades of fraudulent practices aimed at addicting generations of smokers to their deadly products.
• Continuation of the Prevention and Public Health Fund • Continuing to support implementation of the Healthy, • Continued expansion of Medicaid in all 50 states in the face Hunger-Free Kids Act of 2010, important legislation to reau- of a 2012 Supreme Court ruling making the expansion a thorize the federal child nutrition programs and strengthen state-by-state option • Passage of state legislation to ensure cost-sharing for chemo- • Advocating for state and local requirements to increase the therapy and other vital treatment options are affordable to quality and quantity of physical education and physical activity in K-12 schools and hold schools accountable for • Full public access to health plan information for consumers increasing students' physical activity and fitness shopping for health insurance coverage • Supporting the federal government's development of the 2015 • Full federal funding for community health centers, which edition of the Dietary Guidelines for Americans, which forms provide community-oriented primary care in areas that are the basis of all federal nutrition policies and programs, and underserved or do not have access to other health care services helping to ensure it reflects the current science linking diet and cancer risk Funding the Research
• Advocating for science-based updates to the Nutrition Facts ACS CAN is a leader in the effort to ensure full funding for the label that appears on most packaged foods and beverages nation's public cancer research institutions, including the National Institutes of Health and its National Cancer Institute. • Supporting the implementation of menu labeling in restau- Each year, nearly $5 billion in grant funding for cancer research rants and other food retail establishments is distributed to investigators working in cancer centers, univer- • Working with states to pass legislation prohibiting minors sities, and labs in every state of the country. Federal budget from accessing indoor tanning devices pressures threaten this funding every year, and ACS CAN views • Advocating for coverage of cancer screenings and other protection of this account to be of prime importance in the recommended preventive services without financial barriers search for cures.
in private insurance, Medicare, and Medicaid Prevention and Early Detection
• Advocating for full funding for the National Breast and ACS CAN is supporting legislation that focuses on the preven- Cervical Cancer Early Detection Program and the Colorectal tion and early detection of cancer by: Cancer Control Program, which provides free evidence-based cancer screenings and treatment to low-income, uninsured, • Leading the advocacy partnership that pushed the 2009 and medically underserved men and women enactment of the Family Smoking Act giving the US Food and Drug Administration authority, for the first time, to regulate • Supporting a federal bill to eliminate an unexpected cost- the production and marketing of tobacco products. ACS CAN sharing requirement imposed on Medicare beneficiaries who have a polyp removed during colonoscopy. Cancer Facts & Figures 2016 63
Quality of Life
cancer community is heard in the halls of government and is • ACS CAN supports balanced pain policies at the federal and empowering communities everywhere to fight back.
state levels that ensure continued patient and survivor access Another way that the American Cancer Society is championing to the pain relief medications that they need to live and work the cause of the cancer community is through our Relay For Life® independently and have good quality of life.
and Making Strides Against Breast Cancer® programs. The Relay • ACS CAN supports the enactment of legislation that would For Life movement is the world's largest grassroots fundraising assure cancer patients' full access to palliative care services, event to end every cancer in every community. Rallying the pas- along with curative treatment, from the point of diagno- sion of four million people worldwide, Relay For Life events raise sis through treatment and survivorship or end of life as critical funds that help fuel the mission of the Society, an organi- the case may be. Palliative care for pain and symptoms of zation whose reach touches so many lives – those who are treatment has been shown to improve patient, survivor, and currently battling cancer, those who may face a diagnosis in the family quality of life and in some cases improves survival future, and those who may avoid a diagnosis altogether thanks for cancer patients. The legislation provides for increased to education, prevention, and early detection. The Making training and professional development in palliative care, a Strides Against Breast Cancer walk is a powerful event to raise nationwide public and provider education campaign to dis- awareness and funds to end breast cancer. It is the largest net- seminate information about the benefits of palliative care, work of breast cancer events in the nation, uniting nearly 300 and additional research into the biologic bases of pain, and communities to finish the fight. The walks raise critical funds other symptoms such as breathlessness, fatigue, and cogni- that enable the Society to fund groundbreaking breast cancer tive impairment, for which there are few treatment options research; provide free comprehensive information and services available today. ACS CAN has worked to mitigate the public to patients, survivors, and caregivers; and ensure access to impact of cancer drug shortages that periodically plague the mammograms for women who need them so more lives are saved.
industry. The organization is making sure the voice of the Sources of Statistics
Estimated new cancer cases in 2016. The number of new can-
period divided by the number of people who were at risk for the cer cases in the US in 2016 was projected using a spatiotemporal disease in the population. Incidence rates in this publication are model based on incidence data from 49 states and the District of presented per 100,000 people and are age adjusted to the 2000 Columbia for the years 1998-2012 that met the North American US standard population to allow comparisons across popula- Association of Central Cancer Registries' (NAACCR) high-qual- tions with different age distributions. State-, race-, and ity data standard for incidence. This method considers ethnicity-specific incidence rates were previously published in geographic variations in sociodemographic and lifestyle factors, NAACCR's publication Cancer Incidence in North America, 2008- medical settings, and cancer screening behaviors as predictors 2012. (See "B" in Additional information on page 65 for full of incidence, and also accounts for expected delays in case reporting. (For more information on the estimation of new inva- Trends in cancer incidence rates provided in this publication are sive cases, see "A" in Additional information on page 65.) based on delay-adjusted incidence rates from registries in the The number of new cases among Asian Americans, Native National Cancer Institute's Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Hawaiians, and Pacific Islanders (AANHPIs), as well as those for Results (SEER) program. Delay-adjustment accounts for delays female breast carcinoma in situ and melanoma in situ, were esti- and error corrections that occur in the reporting of cancer cases, mated by projecting the average annual percent change in the which is substantial for some sites, particularly those less often estimated number of cases during the most recent 10 years of diagnosed in a hospital, such as leukemia. Delay-adjustment is data (2003-2012) to 2016. Cases from 2003 through 2012 were not available for some cancer types. Trends were originally pub- estimated by applying age-specific incidence rates from 44 lished in the SEER Cancer Statistics Review (CSR) 1975-2012. (See states and the District of Columbia to population counts. Esti- "C" in Additional information on page 65 for full reference.) mates for AANHPIs were adjusted for delays in case reporting. Estimated cancer deaths in 2016. The estimated number of US
Delay adjustment was unavailable for in situ breast and in situ cancer deaths was calculated by fitting the number of cancer melanoma estimates.
deaths from 1998 to 2012 to a statistical model that forecasts the Incidence rates. Incidence rates are defined as the number of
number of deaths expected to occur in 2016. The estimated people who are diagnosed with cancer during a given time number of cancer deaths for each state was calculated similarly 64 Cancer Facts & Figures 2016
using state-level data. For both US and state estimates, data on information for full references.) One-year survival rates were the number of deaths were obtained from the National Center based on cancer patients diagnosed from 2008 to 2011, 10-year for Health Statistics (NCHS) at the Centers for Disease Control survival rates were based on diagnoses from 1999 to 2011, and and Prevention. (For more information on this method, see "D" 15-year survival rates were based on diagnoses from 1994 to in Additional information.) 2011; all patients were followed through 2012.
Mortality rates. Mortality rates, or death rates, are defined as
Probability of developing cancer. Probabilities of developing
the number of people who die from cancer during a given year cancer were calculated using DevCan (Probability of Developing divided by the number of people at risk in the population. In this Cancer) software version 6.7.3, developed by the National Cancer publication, mortality rates are based on counts of cancer Institute. (See "F" in Additional information for full reference.) deaths compiled by the NCHS and population data from the US These probabilities reflect the average experience of people in Census Bureau. Death rates in this publication are presented per the US and do not take into account individual behaviors and 100,000 people and are age adjusted to the 2000 US standard risk factors. For example, the estimate of 1 man in 14 developing population to allow comparisons across populations with differ- lung cancer in a lifetime underestimates the risk for smokers ent age distributions. These rates should be compared only to and overestimates the risk for nonsmokers.
other statistics that are age adjusted to the US 2000 standard Additional information. More information on the methods
population. Trends in cancer mortality rates provided for used to generate the statistics for this report can be found in the selected cancer sites were based on mortality data from 1975 to following publications: 2012 and were first published in the CSR 1975-2012. (See "C" in Additional information for full reference.) A. Zhu L, Pickle LW, Naishadham D, et al. Predicting US and state-level cancer counts for the current calendar year: part II – Important note about estimated cancer cases and deaths
evaluation of spatio-temporal projection methods for incidence. for the current year. The methodology for the 4-years-ahead
Cancer 2012;118(4): 1100-9.
projection of new cancer cases and deaths is model-based and is updated over time as we continually strive to achieve the most B. Copeland G, Lake A, Firth R, et al. (eds). Cancer in North Amer- accurate estimates. As a result, the numbers may vary from year ica: 2008-2012. Volume Two: Registry-specific Cancer Incidence in to year for reasons other than changes in cancer occurrence. the United States and Canada. Springfield, IL: North American Therefore, these estimates should be interpreted with the under- Association of Central Cancer Registries, Inc. June 2015. Avail- standing that they provide a reasonably accurate portrayal of the current cancer burden, but cannot be used to track year-to- C. Howlader N, Noone AM, Krapcho M, et al. (eds). SEER Cancer year changes in cancer occurrence. Age-adjusted incidence and Statistics Review, 1975-2012. National Cancer Institute. Bethesda, mortality rates reported by the SEER program and the NCHS, MD, 2015. Available at .
respectively, are the preferred statistics to track cancer trends in the US. Rates from state cancer registries are useful for tracking D. Chen HS, Portier K, Ghosh K, et al. Predicting US and State- local trends.
level counts for the current calendar year: part I – evaluation of temporal projection methods for mortality. Cancer 2012;118(4): Survival. This report presents relative survival rates for whites,
blacks, and all races combined to describe cancer survival. Rela-tive survival adjusts for normal life expectancy by comparing E. SEER 18 database: Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End survival among cancer patients to that of people not diagnosed Results (SEER) PrograEER*Stat Data- base: with cancer who are of the same age, race, and sex. Cause-spe- Incidence – SEER 18 Regs Research Data + Hurricane Katrina cific survival is used for AANHPIs due to data limitations and Impacted Louisiana Cases, Nov 2014 Sub (1973-2012 varying) – should not be compared to relative survival statistics. Five-year Linked To County Attributes – Total U.S., 1969-2013 Counties, survival statistics presented in this publication were originally National Cancer Institute, DCCPS, Surveillance Research Pro- published in CSR 1975-2012, with all patients followed through gram, Cancer Statistics Branch, released April 2015, based on 2012. Trends in survival are based on data from the nine oldest the November 2014 submission. SEER*Stat software: Surveil- SEER registries, which go back to 1975, whereas all other sur- lance Research Program, National Cancer Institute SEER*Stat vival rates are based on data from all 18 SEER registries, which provide greater population coverage. In addition to 5-year rela- F. DevCan: Probability of Developing or Dying of Cancer Soft- tive survival rates, 1-, 10-, and 15-year survival rates are ware, Version 6.7.3; Statistical Research and Applications presented for selected cancer sites. These survival rates were Branch, National Cancer Institute, April 2015. generated using the National Cancer Institute's SEER 18 data- base and SEER*Stat software version 8.2.1. (See "E" in Additional Cancer Facts & Figures 2016 65
American Cancer Society Recommendations for the Early Detection of
Cancer in Average-risk Asymptomatic People*
Cancer Site
Test or Procedure
Women should undergo regular screening mammography starting at age 45 years.
Women ages 45 to 54 should be screened annual y. Women should have the opportunity to begin annual screening between the ages of 40 and 44. Transition to biennial screening, or have the opportunity to continue annual screening. Continue screening as long as overall health is good and life expectancy is 10+ years.
Screening should be done every 3 years with conventional or liquid-based Pap tests.
Pap test & HPV DNA test Screening should be done every 5 years with both the HPV test and the Pap test (preferred), or every 3 years with the Pap test alone (acceptable).
Pap test & HPV DNA test Women ages 66+ who have had ≥3 consecutive negative Pap tests or ≥2 consecutive negative HPV and Pap tests within the past 10 years, with the most recent test occurring in the past 5 years should stop cervical cancer screening.
Stop cervical cancer screening.
have had a total hysterectomy Guaiac-based fecal occult Annual testing of spontaneously passed stool specimens. Single stool testing during a clinician blood test (gFOBT) with office visit is not recommended, nor are "throw in the toilet bowl" tests. In comparison with at least 50% sensitivity guaiac-based tests for the detection of occult blood, immunochemical tests are more patient- or fecal immunochemical friendly and are likely to be equal or better in sensitivity and specificity. There is no justification test (FIT) with at least 50% for repeating FOBT in response to an initial positive finding.
sensitivity, OR
Stool DNA test, OR
Flexible sigmoidoscopy Every 5 years alone, or consideration can be given to combining FSIG performed every 5 (FSIG), OR
years with a highly sensitive gFOBT or FIT performed annual y.
barium enema, OR
Women should be informed about risks and symptoms of endometrial cancer and encouraged to report unexpected bleeding to a physician.
Low-dose helical CT Clinicians with access to high-volume, high-quality lung cancer screening and treatment centers should initiate a discussion about annual lung cancer screening with apparently healthy patients ages 55-74 who have at least a 30 pack-year smoking history, and who currently smoke or have quit within the past 15 years. A process of informed and shared decision making with a clinician related to the potential benefits, limitations, and harms associated with screening for lung cancer with LDCT should occur before any decision is made to initiate lung cancer screening. Smoking cessation counseling remains a high priority for clinical attention in discussions with current smokers, who should be informed of their continuing risk of lung cancer. Screening should not be viewed as an alternative to smoking cessation Prostate-specific antigen Men who have at least a 10-year life expectancy should have an opportunity to make an test with or without digital informed decision with their health care provider about whether to be screened for prostate rectal examination cancer, after receiving information about the potential benefits, risks, and uncertainties associated with prostate cancer screening. Prostate cancer screening should not occur without an informed decision-making process.
CT-Computed tomography. *All individuals should become familiar with the potential benefits, limitations, and harms associated with cancer screening. †All positive tests (other than colonoscopy) should be fol owed up with colonoscopy.
66 Cancer Facts & Figures 2016
Geographic Divisions of the American Cancer Society, Inc.
To reach the American Cancer Society, please call 1-800-227-2345.
California Division
Great West Division
Midwest Division
1710 Webster Street (AK, AZ, CO, ID, MT, ND, NM,
(IA, MN, SD, WI)
Oakland, CA 94612-3412 NV, OR, UT, WA, WY)
950 Blue Gentian Road East Central Division
Eagan, MN 55121-1577 Route 422 and Sipe Avenue Tacoma, WA 98402-3400 New England Division
High Plains Division
(CT, ME, MA, NH, RI, VT)
Hershey, PA 17033-0897 (GU, HI, KS, MO, NE, OK, TX)
Eastern Division
2433 Ridgepoint Drive Framingham, MA 01701-9376 Austin, TX 78754-5231 South Atlantic Division
132 West 32nd Street Lakeshore Division
(DE, GA, MD, NC, SC, VA,
New York, NY 10001 (IL, IN, MI)
Washington, DC, WV)
Florida Division
250 Williams Street (including Puerto Rico
East Lansing, MI 48823-1907 Atlanta, GA 30303-1002 operations)
Mid-South Division
3709 West Jetton Avenue (AL, AR, KY, LA, MS, TN)
Tampa, FL 33629-5146 1100 Ireland Way Puerto Rico
Birmingham, AL 35205-7014 Calle Cabo Alverio #577 Esquina Sargento Medina Hato Rey, PR 00918 Acknowledgments
The production of this report would not have been possible without the efforts of: Rick Alteri, MD; Tracie
Bertaut, APR; Durado Brooks, MD, MPH; William Chambers, PhD; Ellen Chang, ScD; Moon S. Chen, Jr., PhD,
MPH; Sally Cowal, MPA; Dennis Deapen, DrPH, MPH; Carol DeSantis, MPH; Colleen Doyle, MS, RD; Jeffrey
Drope, PhD; Stacey Fedewa, MPH; Ted Gansler, MD, MBA; Susan Gapstur, PhD; Mia Gaudet, PhD; Ann
Goding-Sauer, MSPH; Scarlett Lin Gomez, PhD, MPH; Brenda Y. Hernandez, PhD, MPH; Eric Jacobs, PhD;
Marjorie Kagawa-Singer, RN, PhD; Debbie Kirkland; Lihua Liu, PhD, MS; Joannie Lortet-Tieulent, MSc;
Melissa Maitin-Shepard, MPP; Ann McMikel, MA; Anne-Michelle Noone, MS; Meg O'Brien, PhD; Anthony
Piercy; Paulo Pinheiro, MD, PhD; Ken Portier, PhD; Debbie Saslow, PhD; Scott Simpson; Robert Smith, PhD;
Kevin Stein, PhD; Lindsey Torre, MSPH; Dana Wagner; Sophia Wang, PhD; Elizabeth Ward, PhD; Martin
Weinstock, MD; and Joe Zou.
Cancer Facts & Figures is an annual publication of the American Cancer Society, Atlanta, Georgia.
For more information, contact:
Rebecca Siegel, MPH; Kimberly Miller, MPH; or Ahmedin Jemal, DVM, PhD
Surveillance and Health Services Research Program
2016, American Cancer Society, Inc.
No. 500816

Source: http://www.doubletinvestments.net/2016%20cancer%20statistics.pdf