Ona_pain0610.indd

FEATURE Cancer pain management
Managing adult cancer pain:
The latest NCCN guidelines
Pain management is important for cancer patients during therapy and some-
times after treatment is completed—not just at the end of life.
BY CARL SHERMAN
Pain is common in cancer — one-third
of patients undergoing treatment and three-fourths of those with advanced disease experience it — and pain is among the symptoms patients fear the most. "It is impera-tive that physicians and nurses caring for these patients be adept at the assessment and treat-ment of cancer pain," say the authors of Adult Cancer Pain , a practice guideline published by the National Comprehensive Cancer Network (NCCN). Oncology nurses have an important role here, says Judith Paice, PhD, RN, director of the cancer pain program at the Robert H. Lurie Comprehensive Cancer Center of Northwestern University, Chicago, Illinois, and a member of the panel that issued the guideline. "Nurses see patients more often, and patients are often reluc-tant to report pain to their physicians because they don't want to distract them from cancer care. Patients are more inclined to discuss pain with nurses." In recent years, "awareness that pain manage- ment is not only for end-of-life care has been increasing," says Dr Paice. "There is a new population of patients who have essentially been cured or who can expect long-term survival but have been left with serious pain issues as a result of treatment. They may be using pain medication for life." Aggressive pain manage- ment is starting earlier in care, she adds, with the realization that such management can make possible effective chemotherapy or radiotherapy www.OncologyNurseAdvisor.com • JUNE 2010 • ONCOLOGY NURSE ADVISOR 27

FEATURE Cancer pain management
that might otherwise be cut short because of painful side When the patient rates pain as effects like neuropathy. severe, a short-acting opioid, COMPREHENSIVE ASSESSMENT
titrated rapidly, is considered to The fi rst step in pain management is one that most nurses be the treatment of choice.
(and doctors) neglect, notes Dr Paice. "Instead of making a full assessment, as soon as they hear the patient has pain, they jump to a medication they feel comfortable with." opiates and other pain management strategies. Medical and At the initial screening, ask the patient to rate the intensity especially oncologic history (including current and prior of his or her pain using a numerical, categorical, or pictorial chemotherapy, radiation, and surgery), along with medica- scale, and to characterize its quality (Figure 1). Determining
tion history, provide an important context for treatment. whether pain is throbbing, aching, tingling, or sharp may Physical examination and laboratory fi ndings may identify provide useful information about its etiology and helps to causes of pain (such as spinal cord compression) requiring direct treatment. specifi c remedies.
The goal of the full assessment is a "pain diagnosis" to guide Psychosocial issues—family support and distress associated an individualized treatment plan. It should include the onset with pain and disease—should also be evaluated, the guideline and course of the pain, exacerbating and ameliorating factors, suggests. Concern about risk of addiction has come to the fore relief measures that have already been tried, and historical in recent years: "Ask about the use of recreational drugs and any information relating to the patient's overall experience with history of addiction or abuse—including family history," Dr Paice emphasizes. Trouble in the past "doesn't mean we with-hold medication, but perhaps we provide a different structure and are more attentive to our prescribing patterns." CHOOSING AN ANALGESIC
Pain intensity is the key variable in analgesic choice for Mild pain
patients who are not already taking opioids. • When the patient rates pain as severe (for example, 7 on
a 10-point scale), a short-acting opioid, titrated rapidly, is the treatment of choice, augmented with other drugs if the patient has neuropathic pain. • The protocol is similar for patients with more moderate
pain (4-6 on a 10-point scale), except that titration of the opioid can be slower.
• For pain of mild intensity (1-3), NSAIDs and acetamino-
phen are alternatives to opioid therapy.
Severe pain
Whatever the pain intensity or primary analgesic, the addition of a co-analgesic should be considered when there are indications of a cancer pain syndrome: neuropathic pain, bone pain, or pain associated with infl ammation. If the pain is related to an oncologic emergency, appropriate steps (such as surgery, corticosteroids, radiotherapy, or antibiotics) severe pain
must also be taken. Pain in a patient who is already taking opioids requires an adjustment of dosage, reevaluation for possible underlying causes, and perhaps the addition of OPIOID GUIDELINES
The most commonly used short-acting opioids are morphine, FIGURE 1. An example of a pain scale
hydromorphone, fentanyl, and oxycodone. The guidelines 28 ONCOLOGY NURSE ADVISOR • JUNE 2010 • www.OncologyNurseAdvisor.com
advise against meperidine and propoxyphene, particularly for long-term or high-dose use, because of toxicity; they caution that partial agonists and mixed agonist-antagonist preparations are of limited utility in cancer pain and can pre-cipitate withdrawal in opioid-dependent patients. Tramadol is weaker than other opioids but may have some value for mild to moderate pain.
Oral administration is best, as it is usually the easiest form
of delivery. For patients not already taking opioids, the drug should be initiated at the equivalent of 5 mg to 15 mg of morphine sulfate orally, or 2 mg to 5 mg intravenously, and titrated to a level suffi cient to relieve pain throughout the dosing interval without causing intolerable adverse effects. For breakthrough pain during opioid therapy, administer 10% to 20% of the 24-hour dose orally, or 10% The NCCN Web site Effi cacy and side effects should be reassessed every 60 minutes depression and acute changes in mental status, although (15 minutes after intravenous administration). If moderate rare, can be addressed immediately with a reversing agent to severe pain remains unchanged or has increased, raise the such as naloxone. dosage by 50% to 100%; if severe pain has become moderate, The effi cacy/side-effect ratio for the individual patient repeat the same dose and reassess an hour later. When pain has may differ among drugs, so opioid rotation—switching to been relieved or reduced to mild levels, consider converting to an equivalently dosed different agent—is an option when an extended-release agent or a non-opioid analgesic, providing side effects are diffi cult to control at therapeutically neces- short-acting "rescue medication" as needed. sary levels.
Managing side eff ects is a key component of opioid therapy.
Constipation is a problem best prevented by a bowel regi- NSAIDs AND ACETAMINOPHEN
men, initiated along with the drug, that includes a stimulant Acetaminophen or an NSAID may be used instead of an laxative and stool softener. If constipation develops, increase opioid for mild pain or as a co-analgesic to reduce opioid dosage. NSAIDs can also be added to the opioid for pain associated with infl ammation. Managing common side eff ects such NSAIDs should be given with caution to patients who are at increased renal, gastrointestinal (GI), or cardiac risk or as nausea, constipation, and motor who have bleeding disorders. If NSAIDs are prescribed over and cognitive impairment is a the long term, monitor blood pressure, blood urea nitrogen, creatinine, complete blood count, and fecal occult blood key component of opioid therapy.
every 3 months. Concurrent proton pump inhibitor therapy may forestall GI problems. Switching to a different agent the stool softener-laxative (after ruling out bowel obstruc- or a COX-2 inhibitor may make continuation of effective tion), or consider reducing the opioid dosage and adding a NSAID therapy possible when GI toxicity is troublesome but not serious. Nausea may respond to prochlorperazine, haloperidol, or Chronic acetaminophen therapy is not without risks. metoclopramide. Consider an antiemetic prophylactically The safety of the 4-g maximum daily dose has not been for a patient who has a history of opioid-induced nausea. defi nitively established over the long term, Dr Paice notes. Pruritus is best treated with an antihistamine.
Problems may arise with cachectic patients, she points out: Motor and cognitive impairment usually resolve spon- "the metabolic breakdown of acetaminophen depends taneously within 2 weeks of stable opioid administration. on enzymes that may not be released without eating. Sedation may require a dose reduction, more frequent These people are at greater risk from toxic by-products of administration to reduce peak concentration, or the addition of caffeine, a psychostimulant, or modafi nil. Respiratory Continued on page 30
www.OncologyNurseAdvisor.com • JUNE 2010 • ONCOLOGY NURSE ADVISOR 29
FEATURE Cancer pain management
With NSAIDs and particularly acetaminophen, the risk of to merit preemptive analgesic treatment. The guidelines overdose is raised by the cumulative impact of hidden sources. advocate a multimodal approach with an emphasis on local "It's embedded in so many over-the-counter preparations— anesthetics such as lidocaine, prilocaine, or tetracaine, sinus medicines, sleep medicines. Most people don't read the delivered via creams, iontophoretic devices, or subcutane- label that carefully," she says. ous injection (allow suffi cient time for anesthetic onset). Sedation, systemic analgesia, even general anesthesia may be CANCER PAIN SYNDROMES
indicated. Nonpharmacologic approaches (such as massage, Co-analgesics may be required for cancer pain of certain heat or ice, ultrasound, or relaxation training) frequently etiologies, alone or in combination with opioids.
have a role as well.
For neuropathic pain , antidepressants and anticonvulsants
"Patients usually tolerate procedures better when they know are fi rst-line drugs of choice. Tricyclics (imipramine, what to expect," the authors say. Providing full explanations desipramine) are the best validated and most common- with ample time for patients to assimilate information and ly prescribed among the antidepressants. A low initial have questions answered can reduce anticipatory anxiety.
dose with gradual titration will optimize tolerability. Anticholinergic adverse effects (dry mouth, sedation, PSYCHOSOCIAL SUPPORT AND EDUCATION
urinary hesitancy) are common, however, particularly Patients and families need to be reassured that steps can and
with the more effective tertiary amines imipramine and
will be taken to manage pain and its accompanying distress amitriptyline. Other antidepressants, including duloxetine, and will most likely involve oral medication only. They will venlafaxine, and bupropion, may be better tolerated by benefi t emotionally from the simple acknowledgment that some patients, but less evidence supports their effi cacy for pain is a problem and that the clinician will work together neuropathic pain.
with them and remain available until they gain relief.
Among anticonvulsants, gabapentin and pregabalin are Talking through the issues surrounding pain — its mean- most often used. Of the two, pregabalin is more effi ciently ing to the patient and the fears that surround it — can be absorbed and can be titrated more quickly. Topical agents, enormously helpful. In progressive disease, "it's a wonderful opportunity to address advance care planning," Dr Paice emphasizes.
"Most patients require Psychosocial support may include teaching coping skills
education about how to that reduce the impact of pain and give the patient some measure of control. These include relaxation and distrac- use rescue medication tion techniques, guided imagery, and cognitive strategies for breakthrough pain." to maximize comfort and limit stress. CDs and other resources are widely available and can be quite helpful, —Judith Paice, PhD, RN
says Dr Paice.
Relaxation and guided imagery may be particularly valu- able for breakthrough pain, during the interval before rescue such as the lidocaine patch or diclofenac gel, can augment medication begins to work, she says. "It can keep muscle systemic pharmacotherapy. tension down and keep pain from escalating while waiting Glucocorticoids are effective for acute pain related to for the immediate-release medication to work."
infl ammation or nerve compression and for bone pain ,
Depression is closely linked to pain and may become more but their extended use carries the risk of signifi cant adverse evident as physical symptoms are brought under control. Refer effects. Bone pain may also benefi t from an NSAID; a trial patients to a mental health professional when indicated.
of bisphosphonates, hormone therapy, or chemotherapy; or Patient and family education should include full explana-
from physical therapy. tion of why medications are prescribed, what they can be expected to do, and how best to use them. "Most patients PROCEDURE-RELATED PAIN
require education about how to use rescue medication for Diagnostic and therapeutic maneuvers common in cancer breakthrough pain," adds Dr Paice. Cautions surrounding care (arterial or central lines, injections, bone marrow controlled substances (safeguarding them in the home, for aspiration, lumbar puncture, skin biopsy) are suffi ciently example) and the impact of sedating medication on driving uncomfortable and anxiety-producing for many patients and other activities are important to discuss. 30 ONCOLOGY NURSE ADVISOR • JUNE 2010 • www.OncologyNurseAdvisor.com
OTHER INTERVENTIONS
Neurostimulation may be indicated Physical modalities are often valuable adjuncts to pharma-
for neuropathy, and radiofrequency cotherapy. Physical therapy might be indicated, for example, for disuse syndromes that accompany and compound chronic ablation can be helpful for patients pain; a therapist's guidance in gait, posture, and movement with painful bone lesions.
can help minimize pain after surgery. Application of heat, cold, ultrasound, and electrical stimulation often substan-tially reduce muscle pain. Massage can be extremely useful for well-localized pain syndromes. For example, celiac when there is signifi cant muscle involvement and for general plexus block can relieve the pain of pancreatic cancer, and superior hypogastric plexus block can be used for Alternative and complementary modalities , such as acu-
midline pelvic pain. Neurostimulation may be indicated puncture and acupressure, are highly acceptable to some for neuropathy and radiofrequency ablation for painful patients. Medical interventions such as nerve block are worth con-
sidering for certain types of cancer pain, after surgery, or THE NCCN CANCER PAIN GUIDELINES
when adequate analgesia is not otherwise possible without
The full text of the National Comprehensive Cancer intolerable side effects. These generally require consultation Network's Clinical Practice Guidelines in Oncology: Adult Cancer with a pain specialist or referral to a specialty clinic.
Pain , is available online at: www.nccn.org/professionals/ Among commonly used procedures are epidural, intrathe- physician_gls/PDF/pain.pdf . Registration (which is free) cal, and regional plexus infusions of opioids, local anesthet- is required for access. ■ ics, or other medications using an external or implanted pump. Neurodestructive procedures can be very useful Carl Sherman is a medical writer in New York City.
www.OncologyNurseAdvisor.com • JUNE 2010 • ONCOLOGY NURSE ADVISOR 31

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