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Seventh Report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection,
Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure
Aram V. Chobanian, George L. Bakris, Henry R. Black, William C. Cushman, Lee A.
Green, Joseph L. Izzo, Jr, Daniel W. Jones, Barry J. Materson, Suzanne Oparil, Jackson T. Wright, Jr, Edward J. Roccella and the National High Blood Pressure Education Program Coordinating Committee 2003;42;1206-1252; originally published online Dec 1, 2003; DOI: 10.1161/01.HYP.0000107251.49515.c2 Hypertension is published by the American Heart Association. 7272 Greenville Avenue, Dallas, TX Copyright 2003 American Heart Association. All rights reserved. Print ISSN: 0194-911X. Online The online version of this article, along with updated information and services, is located on the World Wide Web at: Subscriptions: Information about subscribing to Hypertension is online at Permissions: Permissions & Rights Desk, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, a division of WoltersKluwer Health, 351 West Camden Street, Baltimore, MD 21202-2436. Phone: 410-528-4050. Fax:410-528-8550. E-mail: Reprints: Information about reprints can be found online at JNC 7 – COMPLETE VERSION
SEVENTH REPORT OF THE JOINT NATIONAL
COMMITTEE ON PREVENTION, DETECTION,
EVALUATION, AND TREATMENT OF HIGH
Aram V. Chobanian, George L. Bakris, Henry R. Black, William C. Cushman, Lee A. Green, Joseph L. Izzo, Jr, Daniel W. Jones, Barry J. Materson, Suzanne Oparil, Jackson T. Wright, Jr, Edward J. Roccella, and the National High Blood Pressure Education Program Coordinating Committee Abstract—The National High Blood Pressure Education Program presents the complete Seventh Report of the Joint
National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure. Like its predecessors,
the purpose is to provide an evidence-based approach to the prevention and management of hypertension. The key
messages of this report are these: in those older than age 50, systolic blood pressure (BP) of greater than 140 mm Hg
is a more important cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factor than diastolic BP; beginning at 115/75 mm Hg, CVD risk
doubles for each increment of 20/10 mm Hg; those who are normotensive at 55 years of age will have a 90% lifetime
risk of developing hypertension; prehypertensive individuals (systolic BP 120 –139 mm Hg or diastolic BP 80 – 89
mm Hg) require health-promoting lifestyle modifications to prevent the progressive rise in blood pressure and CVD; for
uncomplicated hypertension, thiazide diuretic should be used in drug treatment for most, either alone or combined with
drugs from other classes; this report delineates specific high-risk conditions that are compelling indications for the use
of other antihypertensive drug classes (angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors, angiotensin-receptor blockers,
beta-blockers, calcium channel blockers); two or more antihypertensive medications will be required to achieve goal BP
(⬍140/90 mm Hg, or ⬍130/80 mm Hg) for patients with diabetes and chronic kidney disease; for patients whose BP
is more than 20 mm Hg above the systolic BP goal or more than 10 mm Hg above the diastolic BP goal, initiation of therapy
using two agents, one of which usually will be a thiazide diuretic, should be considered; regardless of therapy or care,
hypertension will be controlled only if patients are motivated to stay on their treatment plan. Positive experiences, trust in the
clinician, and empathy improve patient motivation and satisfaction. This report serves as a guide, and the committee continues
to recognize that the responsible physician's judgment remains paramount. (Hypertension. 2003;42:1206 –1252.)
For more than 3 decades, the National Heart, Lung, and hypertension may be as much as 1 billion individuals, and Blood Institute (NHLBI) has administered the National approximately 7.1 million deaths per year may be attributable High Blood Pressure Education Program (NHBPEP) Coordi- to hypertension.3 The World Health Organization reports that nating Committee, a coalition of 39 major professional, suboptimal BP (⬎115 mm Hg SBP) is responsible for 62% of public, and voluntary organizations and 7 federal agencies.
cerebrovascular disease and 49% of ischemic heart disease, One important function is to issue guidelines and advisories with little variation by sex. In addition, suboptimal blood designed to increase awareness, prevention, treatment, and pressure is the number one attributable risk for death through- control of hypertension (high blood pressure).
Data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Considerable success has been achieved in the past in Survey (NHANES) have indicated that 50 million or more meeting the goals of the program. The awareness of hyper- Americans have high blood pressure (BP) warranting some tension has improved from a level of 51% of Americans in the form of treatment.1,2 Worldwide prevalence estimates for period 1976 to 1980 to 70% in 1999 to 2000 (Table 1). The Received November 5, 2003; revision accepted November 6, 2003.
From Boston University School of Medicine (A.V.C.), Boston, Mass; Rush University Medical Center (G.L.B., H.R.B.), Chicago, Ill; Veterans Affairs Medical Center (W.C.C.), Memphis, Tenn; University of Michigan (L.A.G.), Ann Arbor, Mich; State University of New York at Buffalo School ofMedicine (J.L.I. Jr.), Buffalo, NY; University of Mississippi Medical Center (D.W.J.), Jackson, Miss; University of Miami (B.J.M.), Miami, Fla;University of Alabama at Birmingham (S.O.), Birmingham, Ala; Case Western Reserve University (J.T.W. Jr.), Cleveland, Ohio; National Heart, Lung,and Blood Institute (E.J.R.), Bethesda, Md.
The executive committee, writing teams, and reviewers served as volunteers without remuneration.
Members of the National High Blood Pressure Education Program Coordinating Committee are listed in the Appendix.
Correspondence to Edward J. Roccella, PhD, Coordinator, National High Blood Pressure Education Program, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health, Building 31, Room 4A10, 31 Center Drive MSC 2480, Bethesda, MD 20892. E-mail [email protected] 2003 American Heart Association, Inc.
Hypertension is available at http://www.hypertensionaha.org

Chobanian et al
JNC 7 – COMPLETE REPORT
Trends in Awareness, Treatment, and Control of
High Blood Pressure 1976 –2000
National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, % Percentage of adults aged 18 to 74 years with systolic blood pressure (SBP) of 140 mm Hg or greater, diastolic blood pressure (DBP) of 90 mm Hg orgreater, or taking antihypertensive medication.
Figure 2. Percentage decline in age-adjusted mortality rates for
*SBP below 140 mm Hg and DBP below 90 mm Hg and on antihypertensive stroke by gender and race: United States, 1970 to 2000.
Source: Prepared by T. Thom, National Heart, Lung, and BloodInstitute from Vital Statistics of the United States, National Cen-ter for Health Statistics. Death rates are age-adjusted to the percentage of patients with hypertension receiving treatment 2000 US census population.
has increased from 31% to 59% in the same period, and thepercentage of persons with high BP controlled to below Furthermore, the rates of decline of deaths from CHD and 140/90 mm Hg has increased from 10% to 34%. Between stroke have slowed in the past decade. In addition, the 1960 and 1991, median systolic BP (SBP) for individuals 60 prevalence and hospitalization rates of HF, wherein the to 74 years old declined by approximately 16 mm Hg (Figure majority of patients have hypertension before developing 1). These changes have been associated with highly favorable heart failure, have continued to increase (Figures 5 and 6).
trends in the morbidity and mortality attributed to hyperten- Moreover, there is an increasing trend in end-stage renal sion. Since 1972, age-adjusted death rates from stroke and disease (ESRD) by primary diagnosis. Hypertension is sec- coronary heart disease (CHD) have declined by approxi- ond only to diabetes as the most common antecedent for this mately 60% and 50%, respectively (Figures 2 and 3). These condition (Figure 7). Undiagnosed, untreated, and uncon- benefits have occurred independent of gender, age, race, or trolled hypertension clearly places a substantial strain on the socioeconomic status. Within the last 2 decades, better health care delivery system.
treatment of hypertension has been associated with a consid-erable reduction in the hospital case-fatality rate for heartfailure (HF) (Figure 4). This information suggests that there have been substantial improvements.
The decision to appoint a committee for The Seventh Report of the However, these improvements have not been extended to Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and the total population. Current control rates for hypertension in Treatment of High Blood Pressure (JNC 7) was based on 4 factors:the publication of many new hypertension observational studies and the United States are clearly unacceptable. Approximately clinical trials since the last report was published in 19974; the need 30% of adults are still unaware of their hypertension, more for a new clear and concise guideline that would be useful to than 40% of individuals with hypertension are not on treat- clinicians; the need to simplify the classification of BP; and a clear ment, and two thirds of hypertensive patients are not being recognition that the JNC reports did not result in maximum benefit controlled to BP levels less than 140/90 mm Hg (Table 1).
to the public. This JNC report is presented in 2 separate publications.
The initial "Express" version, a succinct practical guide, waspublished in the May 21, 2003, issue of the Journal of the AmericanMedical Association.5 The current, more comprehensive reportprovides a broader discussion and justification for the recommenda-tions made by the committee. As with prior JNC reports, the Figure 3. Percentage decline in age-adjusted mortality rates for
CHD by gender and race: United States, 1970 to 2000. Source:
Figure 1. Smoothed weighted frequency distribution, median,
Prepared by T. Thom, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute and 90th percentile of SBP for ages 60 to 74 years, United from Vital Statistics of the United States, National Center for States, 1960 to 1991. Source: Burt et al. Hypertension Health Statistics. Death rates are age-adjusted to the 2000 US 1995;26:60 – 69. Erratum in: Hypertension 1996;27:1192.
census population.

Figure 6. Hospitalization rates for congestive heart failure, ages
Figure 4. Hospital case-fatality rates for congestive heart failure,
45 to 64 and 65⫹: United States, 1971 to 2000. Source: ages ⬍65 and 65⫹: United States, 1981 to 2000. Source: National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. Morbidity and Mortal- National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. Morbidity and Mortal- ity: 2002 Chart Book on Cardiovascular, Lung, and Blood Dis- ity: 2002 Chart Book on Cardiovascular, Lung, and Blood Dis- ease. Chart 3–35. Accessed September 2003.
ease. Chart 3–36. Accessed September 2003.
appointed the JNC 7 chair and an Executive Committee derived from committee recognizes that the responsible physician's judgment is the Coordinating Committee membership. The Coordinating Com- paramount in managing his or her patients.
mittee members served on 1 of 5 JNC 7 writing teams, which Since the publication of the JNC 6 report, the NHBPEP Coordi- contributed to the writing and review of the document.
nating Committee, chaired by the director of the NHLBI, has The concepts for the new report identified by the NHBPEP regularly reviewed and discussed studies on hypertension. To con- Coordinating Committee membership were used to create the report duct this task, the Coordinating Committee is divided into 4 outline. On the basis of these critical issues and concepts, the subcommittees: Science Base; Long Range Planning; Professional, Executive Committee developed relevant medical subject headings Patient, and Public Education; and Program Organization. The (MeSH) terms and keywords to further review the scientific litera- subcommittees work together to review the hypertension scientific ture. These MeSH terms were used to generate MEDLINE searches literature from clinical trials, epidemiology, and behavioral science.
that focused on English-language, peer-reviewed scientific literature In many instances, the principal investigator of the larger studies has from January 1997 through April 2003. Various systems of grading presented the information directly to the Coordinating Committee.
the evidence were considered, and the classification scheme used in The committee reviews are summarized and posted on the NHLBI JNC 6 and other NHBPEP clinical guidelines was selected.4,7–10 This web site.6 This ongoing review process keeps the committee apprisedof the current state of the science, and the information is also used to scheme classifies studies according to a process adapted from Last develop program plans for future activities, such as continuing and Abramson (see the section Scheme Used for Classification of the During fall 2002, the NHBPEP Coordinating Committee chair In reviewing the exceptionally large body of research literature in solicited opinions regarding the need to update the JNC 6 report. The hypertension, the Executive Committee focused its deliberations on entire Coordinating Committee membership provided, in writing, adetailed rationale explaining the necessity for updating JNC 6,outlined critical issues, and provided concepts to be addressed in thenew report. Thereafter, the NHBPEP Coordinating Committee chair Figure 5. Prevalence of CHF by race and gender, ages 25 to
74: United States, 1971 to 1974 to 1999 to 2000. Age-adjusted
to 2000 US census population. White and African American in
1999 to 2000 excludes Hispanics. Source: National Heart, Lung,
and Blood Institute. Morbidity and Mortality: 2002 Chart Book
on Cardiovascular, Lung, and Blood Disease. Accessed Sep-
Figure 7. Trends in incident rates of ESRD, by primary diagno-
sis (adjusted for age, gender, race). Disease categories were book.htm and 1999 to 2000 unpublished data computed by M.
treated as being mutually exclusive. Source: United States Wolz and T. Thom, National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute.
Renal Data System. 2002. Figure 1.14. Accessed September,

Chobanian et al
JNC 7 – COMPLETE REPORT
Figure 8. Residual lifetime risk of hyper-
tension in women and men aged 65
years. Cumulative incidence of hyperten-
sion in 65-year-old women and men.
Data for 65-year-old men in the 1952 to
1975 period are truncated at 15 years
since there were few participants in this
age category who were followed up
beyond this time interval. Source: JAMA
2002;287:1003–1010. Copyright 2002,
American Medical Association. All rights
reserved.
evidence pertaining to outcomes of importance to patients and with circulated among the Coordinating Committee members for review and effects of sufficient magnitude to warrant changes in medical comment. The JNC 7 chair synthesized the comments, and the longer practice ("patient oriented evidence that matters" [POEMs]).12,13 version was submitted to the journal Hypertension in November, 2003.
Patient-oriented outcomes include not only mortality but also otheroutcomes that affect patients' lives and well-being, such as sexual Lifetime Risk of Hypertension
function, ability to maintain family and social roles, ability to work, Hypertension is an increasingly important medical and public and ability to carry out activities of daily living. These outcomes are health issue. The prevalence of hypertension increases with strongly affected by nonfatal stroke, HF, coronary heart disease, and advancing age to the point where more than half of people renal disease; hence, these outcomes were considered along withmortality in the committee's evidence-based deliberations. Studies of aged 60 to 69 years old and approximately three-fourths of physiological end points (disease-oriented evidence [DOEs]) were those aged 70 years and older are affected.1 The age-related used to address questions where POEMs were not available.
rise in SBP is primarily responsible for an increase in both The Coordinating Committee began the process of developing the incidence and prevalence of hypertension with increasing JNC 7 Express report in December 2002, and the report was submitted to the Journal of the American Medical Association inApril 2003. It was published in an electronic format on May 14, Whereas the short-term absolute risk for hypertension is 2003, and in print on May 21, 2003. During this time, the Executive conveyed effectively by incidence rates, the long-term risk is Committee met on 6 occasions, 2 of which included meetings with best summarized by the lifetime risk statistic, which is the the entire Coordinating Committee. The writing teams also met by probability of developing hypertension during the remaining teleconference and used electronic communications to develop the years of life (either adjusted or unadjusted for competing report. Twenty-four drafts were created and reviewed repeatedly. At causes of death). Framingham Heart Study investigators its meetings, the Executive Committee used a modified nominalgroup process14 to identify and resolve issues. The NHBPEP recently reported the lifetime risk of hypertension to be Coordinating Committee reviewed the penultimate draft and pro- approximately 90% for men and women who were nonhy- vided written comments to the Executive Committee. In addition, 33 pertensive at 55 or 65 years old and survived to age 80 to 85 national hypertension leaders reviewed and commented on the (Figure 8).16 Even after adjusting for competing mortality, the document. The NHBPEP Coordinating Committee approved the remaining lifetime risks of hypertension were 86 to 90% in JNC 7 Express report. To complete the longer JNC 7 version, theExecutive Committee members met via teleconferences and in women and 81 to 83% in men.
person and circulated sections of the larger document via e-mail. The The impressive increase of BP to hypertensive levels with sections were assembled and edited by the JNC 7 chair and were age is also illustrated by data indicating that the 4-year rates Figure 9. Ischemic heart disease (IHD)
mortality rate in each decade of age ver-
sus usual blood pressure at the start of
that decade. Source: Reprinted with per-
mission from Elsevier (The Lancet,
2002;360:1903–1913).
Figure 10. Stroke mortality rate in each
decade of age versus usual blood pres-
sure at the start of that decade. Source:
Reprinted with permission from Elsevier
(The Lancet, 2002;360:1903–1913).
of progression to hypertension are 50% for those 65 years and In addition, longitudinal data obtained from the Framing- older with BP in the 130 to 139/85 to 89 mm Hg range and ham Heart Study have indicated that BP values in the 130 to 26% for those with BP in the 120 to 129/80 to 84 mm Hg 139/85 to 89 mm Hg range are associated with a more than 2-fold increase in relative risk from cardiovascular disease(CVD) compared with those with BP levels below 120/ Blood Pressure and Cardiovascular Risk
80 mm Hg (Figure 11).19 Data from observational studies involving more than 1million individuals have indicated that death from bothischemic heart disease and stroke increases progressively and Basis for Reclassification of Blood Pressure
linearly from BP levels as low as 115 mm Hg systolic and Because of the new data on lifetime risk of hypertension and 75 mm Hg diastolic upward (Figures 9 and 10).18 The the impressive increase in the risk of cardiovascular compli- increased risks are present in all age groups ranging from 40 cations associated with levels of BP previously considered to to 89 years old. For every 20 mm Hg systolic or 10 mm Hg be normal, the JNC 7 report has introduced a new classifica- diastolic increase in BP, there is a doubling of mortality from tion that includes the term "prehypertension" for those with both ischemic heart disease and stroke.
BPs ranging from 120 to 139 mm Hg systolic and/or 80 to Figure 11. Impact of high normal blood pressure on the risk of cardiovascular disease. Cumulative incidence of cardiovascular events
in women (A) and men (B) without hypertension, according to blood-pressure category at the baseline examination. Vertical bars indi-
cate 95% confidence intervals. Optimal BP is defined here as a systolic pressure of less than 120 mm Hg and a diastolic pressure of
less than 80 mm Hg. Normal BP is a systolic pressure of 120 to 129 mm Hg or a diastolic pressure of 80 to 84 mm Hg. High-normal
BP is a systolic pressure of 130 to 139 mm Hg or a diastolic pressure of 85 to 89 mm Hg. If the systolic and diastolic pressure read-
ings for a subject were in different categories, the higher of the two categories was used. Source: N Engl J Med 2001;345:1291–1297.
Copyright 2001, Massachusetts Medical Society. All rights reserved.
Chobanian et al
JNC 7 – COMPLETE REPORT
Figure 12. Ten-year risk for CHD by SBP and presence of other
risk factors. Source: Derived from K.M. Anderson, P.W.F. Wil-
son, P.M. Odell, W.B. Kannel. An updated coronary risk profile.
A statement for health professionals. Circulation
1991;83:356 –362.
for individuals with hypertension and no other compelling 89 mm Hg diastolic blood pressure (DBP). This new desig- conditions is ⬍140/90 mm Hg (see the section Compelling nation is intended to identify those individuals in whom early Indications). The goal for individuals with prehypertension intervention by adoption of healthy lifestyles could reduce and no compelling indications is to lower BP to normal with BP, decrease the rate of progression of BP to hypertensive lifestyle changes and prevent the progressive rise in BP using levels with age, or prevent hypertension entirely.
the recommended lifestyle modifications (See the section Another change in classification from JNC 6 is the combining of stage 2 and stage 3 hypertension into a single stage 2 category.
This revision reflects the fact that the approach to the manage- Cardiovascular Disease Risk
ment of the former two groups is similar (Table 2).
The relationship between BP and risk of CVD events iscontinuous, consistent, and independent of other risk factors.
Classification of Blood Pressure
The higher the BP, the greater is the chance of heart attack, Table 3 provides a classification of BP for adults aged 18 and HF, stroke, and kidney diseases. The presence of each older. The classification is based on the average of 2 or more additional risk factor compounds the risk from hypertension, properly measured, seated BP readings on each of 2 or more as illustrated in Figure 12.20 The easy and rapid calculation of office visits.
a Framingham CHD risk score using published tables21 may Prehypertension is not a disease category. Rather it is a assist the clinician and patient in demonstrating the benefits designation chosen to identify individuals at high risk of of treatment. Management of these other risk factors is developing hypertension, so that both patients and clinicians essential and should follow the established guidelines for are alerted to this risk and encouraged to intervene and controlling these coexisting problems that contribute to over- prevent or delay the disease from developing. Individuals all cardiovascular risk.
who are prehypertensive are not candidates for drug therapyon the basis of their level of BP and should be firmly and Importance of Systolic Blood Pressure
unambiguously advised to practice lifestyle modification in Impressive evidence has accumulated to warrant greater order to reduce their risk of developing hypertension in the attention to the importance of SBP as a major risk factor for future (see the section Lifestyle Modifications). Moreover,individuals with prehypertension who also have diabetes orkidney disease should be considered candidates for appropri-ate drug therapy if a trial of lifestyle modification fails toreduce their BP to 130/80 mm Hg or less.
This classification does not stratify hypertensives by the presence or absence of risk factors or target organ damage inorder to make different treatment recommendations, if eitheror both are present. JNC 7 suggests that all people withhypertension (Stages 1 and 2) be treated. The treatment goal Classification of Blood Pressure for Adults
BP Classification Figure 13. Changes in systolic and diastolic blood pressure with
age. SBP and DBP by age and race or ethnicity for men and Stage 1 hypertension women over 18 years of age in the US population. Data fromNHANES III, 1988 to 1991. Source: Burt VL et al. Hypertension Stage 2 hypertension Figure 14. Difference in CHD prediction between systolic and
diastolic blood pressure as a function of age. The strength of
the relationship as a function of age is indicated by an increase
in the ␤ coefficient. Difference in ␤ coefficients (from Cox
Figure 15. Systolic blood pressure distributions. Source: Whel-
proportional-hazards regression) between SBP and DBP is plot- ton PK et al. JAMA 2002;288:1884.
ted as function of age, obtaining this regression line: ␤ (SBP)⫺␤(DBP)⫽1.4948⫹0.0290 ⫻ age (P⫽0.008). A ␤ coefficient level BP with age could be prevented or diminished, much of ⬍0.0 indicates a stronger effect of DBP on CHD risk, while lev-els ⬎0.0 suggest a greater importance of systolic pressure.
hypertension, cardiovascular and renal disease, and stroke Source: Circulation 2001;103:1247.
might be prevented. A number of important causal factors forhypertension have been identified, including excess body CVDs. Changing patterns of BP occur with increasing age.
weight; excess dietary sodium intake; reduced physical ac- The rise in SBP continues throughout life, in contrast to DBP, tivity; inadequate intake of fruits, vegetables, and potassium; which rises until approximately 50 years old, tends to level and excess alcohol intake.10,32 The prevalence of these char- off over the next decade, and may remain the same or fall acteristics is high. One hundred twenty-two million Ameri- later in life (Figure 13).1,15 Diastolic hypertension predomi- cans are overweight or obese.33 Mean sodium intake is nates before 50 years of age, either alone or in combination approximately 4100 mg per day for men and 2750 mg per day with SBP elevation. The prevalence of systolic hypertension for women, 75% of which comes from processed foods.34,35 increases with age, and above the age of 50 years, systolic Fewer than 20% of Americans engage in regular physical hypertension represents the most common form of hyperten- activity,36 and fewer than 25% consume 5 or more servings of sion. DBP is a more potent cardiovascular risk factor than fruits and vegetables daily.37 SBP until age 50; thereafter, SBP is more important (Figure Because the lifetime risk of developing hypertension is very high (Figure 8), a public health strategy that comple- Clinical trials have demonstrated that control of isolated ments the hypertension treatment strategy is warranted. In systolic hypertension reduces total mortality, cardiovascular order to prevent BP levels from rising, primary prevention mortality, stroke, and HF events.23–25 Both observational measures should be introduced to reduce or minimize these studies and clinical trial data suggest that poor SBP control is causal factors in the population, particularly in individuals largely responsible for the unacceptably low rates of overall with prehypertension. A population approach that decreases BP control.26,27 In the Antihypertensive and Lipid-Lowering the BP level in the general population by even modest Treatment to Prevent Heart Attack Trial (ALLHAT) andControlled Onset Verapamil Investigation of Cardiovascular amounts has the potential to substantially reduce morbidity End Points (CONVINCE) trial, DBP control rates exceeded and mortality or at least delay the onset of hypertension. For 90%, but SBP control rates were considerably less (60 to example, it has been estimated that a 5 mm Hg reduction of 70%).28,29 Poor SBP control is at least in part related to SBP in the population would result in a 14% overall reduction physician attitudes. A survey of primary care physicians in mortality due to stroke, a 9% reduction in mortality due to indicated that three-fourths of them failed to initiate antihy- CHD, and a 7% decrease in all-cause mortality (Figure pertensive therapy in older individuals with SBP of 140 to 159 mm Hg, and most primary care physicians did not pursue Barriers to prevention include cultural norms; insufficient control to less than 140 mm Hg.30,31 Most physicians have attention to health education by health care practitioners; lack been taught that the diastolic pressure is more important than of reimbursement for health education services; lack of SBP and thus treat accordingly. Greater emphasis must access to places to engage in physical activity; larger servings clearly be placed on managing systolic hypertension. Other- of food in restaurants; lack of availability of healthy food wise, as the US population becomes older, the toll of choices in many schools, worksites, and restaurants; lack of uncontrolled SBP will cause increased rates of cardiovascular exercise programs in schools; large amounts of sodium added and renal diseases.
to foods by the food industry and restaurants; and the highercost of food products that are lower in sodium and calories.10 Prevention of Hypertension: Public
Overcoming the barriers will require a multipronged ap- proach directed not only to high-risk populations but also to The prevention and management of hypertension are major communities, schools, worksites, and the food industry. The public health challenges for the United States. If the rise in recent recommendations by the American Public Health Chobanian et al
JNC 7 – COMPLETE REPORT
Association and the NHBPEP Coordinating Committee that Recommendations for Follow-Up Based on Initial
the food industry, including manufacturers and restaurants, Blood Pressure Measurements for Adults Without Acute End
reduce sodium in the food supply by 50% over the next Organ Damage
decade is the type of approach that, if implemented, would reduce BP in the population.39,40 Follow-Up Recommended† Recheck in 2 years Recheck in 1 year‡ Healthy People 2010 has identified the community as asignificant partner and vital point of intervention for attaining Stage 1 hypertension Confirm within 2 months‡ healthy goals and outcomes.41 Partnerships with community Stage 2 hypertension Evaluate or refer to source of care within 1 month.
groups such as civic, philanthropic, religious, and senior For those with higher pressures (eg,⬎180/110 mm Hg), evaluate and treat immediately citizen organizations provide locally focused orientation to or within 1 week depending on clinical situation the health needs of diverse populations. The probability of and complications.
success increases as interventional strategies more aptly *If systolic and diastolic categories are different, follow recommendations for address the diversity of racial, ethnic, cultural, linguistic, shorter time follow-up (e.g., 160/86 mm Hg should be evaluated or referred to religious, and social factors in the delivery of medical source of care within 1 month).
services. Community service organizations can promote the †Modify the scheduling of follow-up according to reliable information about past prevention of hypertension by providing culturally sensitive BP measurements, other cardiovascular risk factors, or target organ disease.
educational messages and lifestyle support services and by ‡Provide advice about lifestyle modifications (see Lifestyle Modifications establishing cardiovascular risk factor screening and referralprograms. Community-based strategies and programs have should be avoided for at least 30 minutes prior to measure- been addressed in prior NHLBI publications and other doc-uments (Facts About the DASH Eating Plan, ment. Measurement of BP in the standing position is indi- Lowering High Blood Pressure,43 National High Blood Pres- cated periodically, especially in those at risk for postural sure Education Month,44 The Heart Truth: A National Aware- hypotension, prior to necessary drug dose or adding a drug, ness Campaign for Women About Heart Disease,45 Mobiliz- and in those who report symptoms consistent with reduced ing African American Communities To Address Disparities in BP on standing. An appropriately sized cuff (cuff bladder Cardiovascular Health: The Baltimore City Health Partner- encircling at least 80% of the arm) should be used to ensure ship Strategy Development Workshop Summary Report,46 accuracy. At least two measurements should be made and the NHLBI Healthy People 2010 Gateway,47 Cardiovascular average recorded. For manual determinations, palpated radial Disease Enhanced Dissemination and Utilization Centers pulse obliteration pressure should be used to estimate SBP; [EDUCs] Awardees,48 Hearts N' Parks,49 Healthbeat Radio the cuff should then be inflated 20 to 30 mm Hg above this Network,50 Salud para su Corazo´n [For the Health of Your level for the auscultatory determinations; the cuff deflation rate for auscultatory readings should be 2 mm Hg per second.
SBP is the point at which the first of two or more Korotkoff Calibration, Maintenance, and Use of Blood
sounds is heard (onset of phase 1), and the disappearance of Korotkoff sound (onset of phase 5) is used to define DBP.
The potential of mercury spillage contaminating the environ- Clinicians should provide to patients, verbally and in writing, ment has led to the decreased use or elimination of mercury their specific BP numbers and the BP goal of their treatment.
in sphygmomanometers as well as in thermometers52 How- Follow-up of patients with various stages of hypertension ever, concerns regarding the accuracy of nonmercury sphyg- is recommended as shown in Table 4.
momanometers have created new challenges for accurate BPdetermination.53,54 When mercury sphygmomanometers are Ambulatory Blood Pressure Monitoring
replaced, the new equipment, including all home BP mea- Ambulatory blood pressure monitoring (ABPM) provides surement devices, must be appropriately validated and information about BP during daily activities and sleep.59 BP checked regularly for accuracy.55 has a reproducible circadian profile, with higher values whileawake and mentally and physically active, much lower values Accurate Blood Pressure Measurement in
during rest and sleep, and early morning increases for 3 or the Office
more hours during the transition of sleep to wakefulness.60 The accurate measurement of BP is the sine qua non for These devices use either a microphone to measure Korotkoff successful management. The equipment, whether aneroid, sounds or a cuff that senses arterial waves using oscillometric mercury, or electronic, should be regularly inspected and techniques. Twenty-four-hour BP monitoring provides mul- validated. The operator should be trained and regularly tiple readings during all of a patient's activities. While office retrained in the standardized technique, and the patient must BP values have been used in the numerous studies that have be properly prepared and positioned.4,56,57 The auscultatory established the risks associated with an elevated BP and the method of BP measurement should be used.58 Persons should benefits of lowering BP, office measurements have some be seated quietly for at least 5 minutes in a chair (rather than shortcomings. For example, a white-coat effect (increase in on an examination table), with feet on the floor, and arm BP primarily in the medical care environment) is noted in as supported at heart level. Caffeine, exercise, and smoking many as 20 to 35% of patients diagnosed with hypertension.61 Clinical Situations in Which Ambulatory Blood
Cardiovascular Risk Factors
Pressure Monitoring May Be Helpful
Major risk factors Suspected white-coat hypertension in patients with hypertension and no target organ damage Age (older than 55 for men, 65 for women)† Apparent drug resistance (office resistance) Diabetes mellitus* Hypotensive symptoms with antihypertensive medication Elevated LDL (or total) cholesterol or low HDL cholesterol* Episodic hypertension Estimated GFR ⬍60 mL/min Autonomic dysfunction Family history of premature cardiovascular disease (men aged ⬍55 orwomen aged ⬍65) Ambulatory BP values are usually lower than clinic read- ings. Awake hypertensive individuals have an average BP of Obesity* (body mass index ⱖ30 kg/m2) ⬎135/85 mm Hg and during sleep, ⬎120/75 mm Hg. The Physical inactivity level of BP measurement using ABPM correlates better than Tobacco usage, particularly cigarettes office measurements with target organ injury.15 ABPM also Target organ damage provides a measure of the percentage of BP readings that areelevated, the overall BP load, and the extent of BP fall during sleep. In most people, BP drops by 10 to 20% during the night; Left ventricular hypertrophy those in whom such reductions are not present appear to be at Angina/prior myocardial infarction increased risk for cardiovascular events. In addition, it was Prior coronary revascularization reported recently that ABPM patients whose 24-hour BP ex- ceeded 135/85 mm Hg were nearly twice as likely to have a cardiovascular event as those with 24-hour mean BPs less than Stroke or transient ischemic attack 135/85 mm Hg, irrespective of the level of the office BP.62,63 Indications for the use of ABPM are listed in Table 5.
Medicare reimbursement for ABPM is now provided to Chronic kidney disease assess patients with suspected white-coat hypertension.
Peripheral arterial disease GFR indicates glomerular filtration rate.
Self-monitoring of BP at home and work is a practical *Components of the metabolic syndrome. Reduced HDL and elevated approach to assess differences between office and out-of- triglycerides are components of the metabolic syndrome. Abdominal obesity is office BP prior to consideration of ambulatory monitoring.
also a component of metabolic syndrome.
For those whose out-of-office BPs are consistently ⬍130/ †Increased risk begins at approximately 55 and 65 for men and women, respectively. Adult Treatment Panel III used earlier age cutpoints to suggest the 80 mm Hg despite an elevated office BP and who lack need for earlier action.
evidence of target organ disease, 24-hour monitoring or drugtherapy can be avoided.
Self-measurement or ambulatory monitoring may be par- extremities for edema and pulses; and neurological ticularly helpful in assessing BP in smokers. Smoking raises BP acutely, and the level returns to baseline in about 15 Data from epidemiological studies and clinical trials have minutes after stopping.
demonstrated that elevations in resting heart rate and reducedheart rate variability are associated with higher cardiovascu- lar risk. In the Framingham Heart Study, an average resting Evaluation of hypertensive patients has three objectives: (1) heart rate of 83 beats per minute was associated with a to assess lifestyle and identify other cardiovascular risk substantially higher risk of death from a CV event than those factors or concomitant disorders that may affect prognosisand guide treatment (Table 6); (2) to reveal identifiable Identifiable Causes of Hypertension
causes of high BP (Table 7); and (3) to assess the presence or Chronic kidney disease absence of target organ damage and CVD.
Patient evaluation is made through medical history, phys- Coarctation of the aorta ical examination, routine laboratory tests, and other diagnos- Cushing syndrome and other glucocorticoid excess states including chronic tic procedures. The physical examination should include an appropriate measurement of BP, with verification in the Drug-induced or drug-related (see Table 18) contralateral arm; examination of the optic fundi; calculation Obstructive uropathy of body mass index (BMI) (measurement of waist circumfer- ence is also very useful); auscultation for carotid, abdominal, Primary aldosteronism and other mineralocorticoid excess states and femoral bruits; palpation of the thyroid gland; thorough examination of the heart and lungs; examination of the abdomen for enlarged kidneys, masses, distended urinary Thyroid or parathyroid disease bladder, and abnormal aortic pulsation; palpation of the lower Chobanian et al
JNC 7 – COMPLETE REPORT
Screening Tests for Identifiable Hypertension
Chronic kidney disease Coarctation of the aorta Cushing syndrome and other glucocorticoid History/dexamethasone suppression test excess states including chronic steroid therapy Drug-induced/related (see Table 18) History; drug screening 24-hour urinary metanephrine and normetanephrine Primary aldosteronism and other 24-hour urinary aldosterone level or specific mineralocorticoid excess states measurements of other mineralocorticoids Doppler flow study; magnetic resonance angiography Sleep study with O2 saturation GFR indicates glomerular filtration rate; CT, computed tomography; TSH, thyroid stimulating hormone; PTH, at lower heart rate levels.64 Moreover, reduced heart rate be considered in some individuals, particularly those with variability was also associated with an increase in CV CVD but without other risk factor abnormalities. Results of mortality.65 No clinical trials have prospectively evaluated the an analysis of the Framingham Heart Study cohort demon- impact of reducing heart rate on CV outcomes.
strated that those with an LDL value within the rangeassociated with low CV risk, who also had an elevated Laboratory Tests and Other
HS-CRP value, had a higher CV event rate as compared with those with low CRP and high LDL-C.73 Other studies also Routine laboratory tests recommended before initiating ther- have shown that elevated CRP is associated with a higher CV apy include a 12-lead ECG; urinalysis; blood glucose and event rate, especially in women.74 Elevations in homocys- hematocrit; serum potassium, creatinine (or the correspond- teine have also been described as associated with higher CV ing estimated glomerular filtration rate [eGFR]), and calci- risk; however, the results with this marker are not as robust as um66; and a lipoprotein profile (after 9- to 12-hour fast) that those with high HS-CRP.75,76 includes HDL and LDL cholesterol (HDL-C and LDL-C) andtriglycerides (TGs). Optional tests include measurement of Identifiable Causes of Hypertension
urinary albumin excretion or albumin/creatinine ratio (ACR), Additional diagnostic procedures may be indicated to identify except for those with diabetes or kidney disease, for whom causes of hypertension, particularly in patients whose (1) age, annual measurements should be made. More extensive testing history, physical examination, severity of hypertension, or for identifiable causes is not indicated generally unless BP initial laboratory findings suggest such causes; (2) BP re- control is not achieved or the clinical and routine laboratory sponds poorly to drug therapy; (3) BP begins to increase for evaluation strongly suggests an identifiable secondary cause uncertain reason after being well controlled; and (4) onset of (ie, vascular bruits, symptoms of catecholamine excess, hypertension is sudden. Screening tests for particular forms of unprovoked hypokalemia). See the section Identifiable identifiable hypertension are shown in Table 8.
Causes of Hypertension for a more thorough discussion.
Pheochromocytoma should be suspected in patients with The presence of decreased GFR or albuminuria has prog- labile hypertension or with paroxysms of hypertension ac- nostic implications as well. Studies reveal a strong relation- companied by headache, palpitations, pallor, and perspira- ship between decreases in GFR and increases in cardiovas- tion.77 Decreased pressure in the lower extremities or delayed cular morbidity and mortality.67,68 Even small decreases in or absent femoral arterial pulses may indicate aortic coarcta- GFR increase cardiovascular risk.67 Serum creatinine may tion; truncal obesity, glucose intolerance, and purple striae overestimate glomerular filtration. The optimal tests to deter- suggest Cushing syndrome. Examples of clues from the mine GFR are debated, but calculating GFR from the recent laboratory tests include unprovoked hypokalemia (primary modifications of the Cockcroft and Gault equations is aldosteronism), hypercalcemia (hyperparathyroidism), and elevated creatinine or abnormal urinalysis (renal parenchymal The presence of albuminuria, including microalbuminuria, disease). Appropriate investigations should be conducted even in the setting of normal GFR, is also associated with an when there is a high index of suspicion of an identifiable increase in cardiovascular risk.70–72 Urinary albumin excre- tion should be quantitated and monitored on an annual basis The most common parenchymal kidney diseases associated in high-risk groups, such as those with diabetes or renal with hypertension are chronic glomerulonephritis, polycystic kidney disease, and hypertensive nephrosclerosis. These can Additionally, three emerging risk factors—(1) high- generally be distinguished by the clinical setting and addi- sensitivity C-reactive protein (HS-CRP), a marker of inflam- tional testing. For example, a renal ultrasound is useful in mation; (2) homocysteine; and (3) elevated heart rate—may diagnosing polycystic kidney disease. Renal artery stenosis and subsequent renovascular hypertension should be sus- drug doses, or appropriate drug combinations may result in pected in a number of circumstances, including (1) onset of inadequate BP control.
hypertension before 30 years of age, especially in the absenceof family history, or onset of significant hypertension after Goals of Therapy
age 55; (2) an abdominal bruit, especially if a diastolic The ultimate public health goal of antihypertensive therapy is component is present; (3) accelerated hypertension; (4) hy- to reduce cardiovascular and renal morbidity and mortality.
pertension that had been easy to control but is now resistant; Since most persons with hypertension, especially those ⬎50 (5) recurrent flash pulmonary edema; (6) renal failure of years old, will reach the DBP goal once the SBP goal is uncertain etiology, especially in the absence of proteinuria or achieved, the primary focus should be on attaining the SBP an abnormal urine sediment; and (7) acute renal failure goal. Treating SBP and DBP to targets that are ⬍140/ precipitated by therapy with an angiotensin-converting en- 90 mm Hg is associated with a decrease in CVD complica-tions.87 In patients with hypertension and diabetes or renal zyme inhibitor (ACEI) or angiotensin receptor blocker (ARB) disease, the BP goal is ⬍130/80 mm Hg.88,89 under conditions of occult bilateral renal artery stenosis ormoderate to severe volume depletion.
Benefits of Lowering Blood Pressure
In patients with suspected renovascular hypertension, non- In clinical trials, antihypertensive therapy has been associated invasive screening tests include the ACEI-enhanced renal with reductions in stroke incidence averaging 35% to 40%; scan, duplex Doppler flow studies, and magnetic resonance myocardial infarction, 20% to 25%; and HF, ⬎50%.90 It is angiography. While renal artery angiography remains the estimated that in patients with stage 1 hypertension (SBP 140 gold standard for identifying the anatomy of the renal artery, to 159 mm Hg and/or DBP 90 to 99 mm Hg) and additional it is not recommended for diagnosis alone because of the risk cardiovascular risk factors, achieving a sustained 12 mm Hg associated with the procedure. At the time of intervention, an reduction in SBP over 10 years will prevent 1 death for every arteriogram will be performed using limited contrast to 11 patients treated. In the added presence of CVD or target confirm the stenosis and identify the anatomy of the renal organ damage, only 9 patients would require such BP reduction to prevent 1 death.91 Genetics of Hypertension
The investigation of rare genetic disorders affecting BP has Adoption of healthy lifestyles by all persons is critical for the led to the identification of genetic abnormalities associated prevention of high BP and is an indispensable part of the with several rare forms of hypertension, including management of those with hypertension.10 Weight loss of as little as 10 lbs (4.5 kg) reduces BP and/or prevents hyperten- hydroxylase and 17␣-hydroxylase deficiencies, Liddle syn- sion in a large proportion of overweight persons, although the drome, the syndrome of apparent mineralocorticoid excess, ideal is to maintain normal body weight.92,93 BP is also and pseudohypoaldosteronism type II.82 The individual and benefited by adoption of the Dietary Approaches to Stop joint contributions of these genetic mutations to BP levels in Hypertension (DASH) eating plan,94 which is a diet rich in the general population, however, are very small. Genetic fruits, vegetables, and lowfat dairy products with a reduced association studies have identified polymorphisms in several content of dietary cholesterol as well as saturated and total fat candidate genes (eg, angiotensinogen, ␣-adducin, ␤- and (modification of whole diet). It is rich in potassium and DA-adrenergic receptors, ␤-3 subunit of G proteins), and calcium content.95 Dietary sodium should be reduced to no genetic linkage studies have focused attention on several more than 100 mmol per day (2.4 g of sodium).94–96 Everyone genomic sites that may harbor other genes contributing to who is able should engage in regular aerobic physical activity primary hypertension.83–85 However, none of these various such as brisk walking at least 30 minutes per day most days genetic abnormalities has been shown, either alone or in joint of the week.97,98 Alcohol intake should be limited to no more combination, to be responsible for any applicable portion of than 1 oz (30 mL) of ethanol, the equivalent of two drinks, per hypertension in the general population.
day in most men and no more than 0.5 oz of ethanol (onedrink) per day in women and lighter weight persons. A drink is 12 oz of beer, 5 oz of wine, and 1.5 oz of 80-proof liquor(Table 9).99 Lifestyle modifications reduce BP, prevent or Blood Pressure Control Rates
delay the incidence of hypertension, enhance antihyperten- Hypertension is the most common primary diagnosis in sive drug efficacy, and decrease cardiovascular risk. For America (35 million office visits as the primary diagnosis).5 example, in some individuals, a 1600 mg sodium DASH Current control rates (SBP ⬍140 mm Hg and DBP eating plan has BP effects similar to single drug therapy.94 ⬍90 mm Hg), though improved, are still far below the Combinations of 2 (or more) lifestyle modifications can Healthy People goal of 50% (originally set as the year 2000 achieve even better results.100 For overall cardiovascular risk goal and since extended to 2010; Table 1). In the majority of reduction, patients should be strongly counseled to quit patients, reducing SBP has been considerably more difficult than lowering DBP. Although effective BP control can beachieved in most patients who are hypertensive, the majority will require 2 or more antihypertensive drugs.28,29,86 Failure to A large number of drugs are currently available for reducing prescribe lifestyle modifications, adequate antihypertensive BP. Tables 10 and 11 provide a list of the commonly used Chobanian et al
JNC 7 – COMPLETE REPORT
Lifestyle Modifications To Prevent and Manage Hypertension*
Approximate SBP Reduction Maintain normal body weight (body 5–20 mm Hg/10 kg92,93 mass index 18.5–24.9 kg/m2).
Adopt DASH eating plan Consume a diet rich in fruits, 8–14 mm Hg94,95 vegetables, and low-fat dairyproducts with a reduced content ofsaturated and total fat.
Dietary sodium reduction Reduce dietary sodium intake to no 2–8 mm Hg94–96 more than 100 mmol per day (2.4 gsodium or 6 g sodium chloride).
Physical activity Engage in regular aerobic physical activity such as brisk walking (atleast 30 minutes per day, most daysof the week).
Moderation of alcohol Limit consumption to no more than 2 drinks (eg, 24 oz beer, 10 oz wine,or 3 oz 80-proof whiskey) per day inmost men and to no more than 1drink per day in women and lighter-weight persons.
DASH indicates Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension.
*For overall cardiovascular risk reduction, stop smoking.
†The effects of implementing these modifications are dose- and time-dependent and could be greater for some individuals.
antihypertensive agents and their usual dose range and disease (EUROPA), in which the ACEI perindopril was frequency of administration.
added to existent therapy in patients with stable coronary More than two-thirds of hypertensive individuals cannot disease and without HF, also demonstrated reduction in CVD be controlled on one drug and will require two or more events with ACEIs.114 antihypertensive agents selected from different drug class- Since 1998, several large trials comparing newer classes of es.28,87,101–103 For example, in ALLHAT, 60% of those agents, including CCBs, ACEIs, an ␣1 receptor blocker, and whose BP was controlled to ⬍140/90 mm Hg received two an ARB, with the older diuretics and/or BBs have been or more agents, and only 30% overall were controlled on completed.101,102,109,112,115–118 Most of these studies showed one drug.28 In hypertensive patients with lower BP goals or the newer classes were neither superior nor inferior to the with substantially elevated BP, 3 or more antihypertensive older ones. One exception was the Losartan Intervention for drugs may be required.
Endpoint Reduction in Hypertension (LIFE) study, in which Since the first VA Cooperative trial published in 1967, CVD events were 13% lower (because of differences in thiazide-type diuretics have been the basis of antihyperten- stroke but not CHD rates) with the ARB losartan than with sive therapy in the majority of placebo-controlled outcome the BB atenolol.102 There has not been a large outcome trial trials in which CVD events, including strokes, CHD, and HF, completed as yet comparing an ARB with a diuretic. All of have been reduced by BP lowering.104–108 However, there are these trials taken together suggest broadly similar cardiovas- also excellent clinical trial data proving that lowering BP with cular protection from BP-lowering with ACEIs, CCBs, and other classes of drugs, including ACEIs, ARBs, ␤-blockers ARBs, as with thiazide-type diuretics and BBs, although (BBs), and calcium channel blockers (CCBs), also reduces some specific outcomes may differ between the classes.
the complications of hypertension.90,101,102,107,109–112 Several There do not appear to be systematic outcome differences randomized controlled trials have demonstrated reduction in between dihydropyridine and nondihydropyridine CCBs in CVD with BBs, but the benefits are less consistent than with hypertension morbidity trials. On the basis of other data, diuretics.107,108 The European Trial on Systolic Hypertension short-acting CCBs are not recommended in the management in the Elderly (Syst-EUR) study showed significant reduc- of hypertension.
tions in stroke and all CVD with the dihydropyridine CCB,nitrendipine, compared with placebo.113 The Heart Outcomes Rationale for Recommendation of Thiazide-Type Diuretics
Prevention Evaluation (HOPE) trial, which was not restricted as Preferred Initial Agent
to hypertensive individuals but which included a sizable In trials comparing diuretics with other classes of antihyper- hypertensive subgroup, showed reductions in a variety of tensive agents, diuretics have been virtually unsurpassed in CVD events with the ACEI ramipril compared with placebo preventing the cardiovascular complications of hypertension.
in individuals with prior CVD or diabetes mellitus combined In the ALLHAT study, which involved more than 40 000 with other risk factor(s).110 The European trial on reduction of hypertensive individuals,109 there were no differences in the cardiac events with perindopril in stable coronary artery primary CHD outcome or mortality between the thiazide-type TABLE 10.
Oral Antihypertensive Drugs
Usual Dose Range, Drug (Trade Name) Thiazide diuretics Chlorothiazide (Diuril) Chlorthalidone (generic) Hydrochlorothiazide (Microzide, HydroDIURIL†) Polythiazide (Renese) Indapamide (Lozol†) Metolazone (Mykrox) Metolazone (Zaroxolyn) Bumetanide (Bumex†) Furosemide (Lasix†) Torsemide (Demadex†) Amiloride (Midamor†) Triamterene (Dyrenium) Aldosterone receptor blockers Eplerenone (Inspra) Atenolol (Tenormin†) Betaxolol (Kerlone†) Bisoprolol (Zebeta†) Metoprolol extended release (Toprol XL) Nadolol (Corgard†) Propranolol (Inderal†) Propranolol long-acting (Inderal LA†) Timolol (Blocadren†) BBs with intrinsic sympathomimetic activity Acebutolol (Sectral†) Penbutolol (Levatol) Pindolol (generic) Combined ␣-blockers and BBs Carvedilol (Coreg) Labetalol (Normodyne, Trandate†) Benazepril (Lotensin†) Captopril (Capoten†) Enalapril (Vasotec†) Fosinopril (Monopril) Lisinopril (Prinivil, Zestril†) Moexipril (Univasc) Perindopril (Aceon) Quinapril (Accupril) Ramipril (Altace) Trandolapril (Mavik) Angiotensin II antagonists Candesartan (Atacand) Eprosartan (Teveten) Irbesartan (Avapro) Losartan (Cozaar) Olmesartan (Benicar) Telmisartan (Micardis) Valsartan (Diovan) Chobanian et al
JNC 7 – COMPLETE REPORT
TABLE 10.
Oral Antihypertensive Drugs (continued)
Usual Dose Range, Drug (Trade Name) Diltiazem extended release (Cardizem CD, Dilacor XR, Tiazac†) Diltiazem extended release (Cardizem LA) Verapamil immediate release (Calan, Isoptin†) Verapamil long acting (Calan SR, Isoptin SR†) Verapamil (Coer, Covera HS, Verelan PM) Amlodipine (Norvasc) Felodipine (Plendil) Isradipine (Dynacirc CR) Nicardipine sustained release (Cardene SR) Nifedipine long-acting (Adalat CC, Procardia Nisoldipine (Sular) Doxazosin (Cardura) Prazosin (Minipress†) Terazosin (Hytrin) Central ␣2 agonists and othercentrally acting drugs Clonidine (Catapres†) Clonidine patch (Catapres-TTS) Methyldopa (Aldomet†) Reserpine (generic) Guanfacine (Tenex†) Direct vasodilators Minoxidil (Loniten†) Source: Physicians' Desk Reference. 57th ed. Montvale, NJ: Thomson PDR; 2003.
*In some patients treated once daily, the antihypertensive effect may diminish toward the end of the dosing interval (trough effect). BP should be measured just prior to dosing to determine if satisfactory BP control is obtained. Accordingly, an increase in dosage or frequency may need to be considered. These dosages mayvary from those listed in the Physician's Desk Reference, 57th ed.
†Available now or soon to become available in generic preparations.
diuretic chlorthalidone, the ACEI lisinopril, or the CCB were generally the equivalent of 25 to 50 mg of hydrochlo- amlodipine. Stroke incidence was greater with lisinopril than rothiazide or 12.5 to 25 mg of chlorthalidone, although chlorthalidone therapy, but these differences were present therapy may be initiated at lower doses and titrated to these primarily in blacks, who also had less BP lowering with doses if tolerated. Higher doses have been shown to add lisinopril than diuretics. The incidence of HF was greater in little additional antihypertensive efficacy but are associ- CCB-treated and ACEI-treated individuals compared with ated with more hypokalemia and other adverse those receiving the diuretic in both blacks and whites. In the effects.119 –122 Second Australian National Blood Pressure (ANBP2) study, Uric acid will increase in many patients receiving a which compared the effects of an ACEI-based regimen diuretic, but the occurrence of gout is uncommon with against diuretics-based therapy in 6000 white hypertensive dosages ⱕ50 mg/d of hydrochlorothiazide or ⱕ25 mg of individuals, cardiovascular outcomes were less in the ACEI chlorthalidone. Some reports have described an increased group, with the favorable effect apparent only in men.112 degree of sexual dysfunction when thiazide diuretics, partic- CVD outcome data comparing ARB with other agents are ularly at high doses, are used. In the Treatment of Mild Hypertension Study (TOMHS), participants randomized to Clinical trial data indicate that diuretics are generally chlorthalidone reported a significantly higher incidence of well tolerated.103,109 The doses of thiazide-type diuretics erection problems through 24 months of the study; however, used in successful morbidity trials of low-dose diuretics the incidence rate at 48 months was similar to placebo.123 The TABLE 11.
Combination Drugs for Hypertension
Fixed-Dose Combination, mg* Amlodipine-benazepril hydrochloride (2.5/10, 5/10, 5/20, 10/20) Trandolapril-verapamil (2/180, 1/240, 2/240, 4/240) ACEIs and diuretics Benazepril-hydrochlorothiazide (5/6.25, 10/12.5, 20/12.5, 20/25) Captopril-hydrochlorothiazide (25/15, 25/25, 50/15, 50/25) Enalapril-hydrochlorothiazide (5/12.5, 10/25) Fosinopril-hydrochlorothiazide (10/12.5, 20/12.5) Lisinopril-hydrochlorothiazide (10/12.5, 20/12.5, 20/25) Prinzide, Zestoretic Moexipril-hydrochlorothiazide (7.5/12.5, 15/25) Quinapril-hydrochlorothiazide (10/12.5, 20/12.5, 20/25) ARBs and diuretics Eprosartan-hydrochlorothiazide (600/12.5, 600/25) Losartan-hydrochlorothiazide (50/12.5, 100/25) Olmesartan medoxomil-hydrochlorothiazide (20/12.5, 40/12.5, 40/25) Valsartan-hydrochlorothiazide (80/12.5, 160/12.5, 160/25) BBs and diuretics Atenolol-chlorthalidone (50/25, 100/25) Bisoprolol-hydrochlorothiazide (2.5/6.25, 5/6.25, 10/6.25) Metoprolol-hydrochlorothiazide (50/25, 100/25) Nadolol-bendroflumethiazide (40/5, 80/5) Propranolol LA-hydrochlorothiazide (40/25, 80/25) Centrally acting drug and diuretic Methyldopa-hydrochlorothiazide (250/15, 250/25, 500/30, 500/50) Reserpine-chlorthalidone (0.125/25, 0.25/50) Reserpine-chlorothiazide (0.125/250, 0.25/500) Diuretic and diuretic Spironolactone-hydrochlorothiazide (25/25, 50/50) Triamterene-hydrochlorothiazide (37.5/25, 75/50) BB indicates ␤-blocker; ACEI, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor; ARB, angiotensin receptor blocker; CCB, calcium channel blocker.
*Some drug combinations are available in multiple fixed doses. Each drug dose is reported in milligrams.
VA Cooperative study did not document a significant differ- not shown an increase in serum cholesterol in diuretic- ence in the occurrence of sexual dysfunction using diuretics treated patients.124,125 In ALLHAT, serum cholesterol did compared with other antihypertensive medications103 (see the not increase from baseline in any group, but it was 1.6 section Erectile Dysfunction). Adverse metabolic effects mg/dL lower in the CCB group and 2.2 mg/dL lower in the may occur with diuretics. In ALLHAT, diabetes incidence ACEI group than in diuretic-treated patients.109 Thiazide- after 4 years of therapy was 11.8% with chlorthalidone induced hypokalemia could contribute to increased ven- therapy, 9.6% with amlodipine, and 8.1% with lisinopril.
tricular ectopy and possible sudden death, particularly with However, those differences did not translate to fewer CV high doses of thiazides in the absence of a potassium- events for the ACEI or CCB groups.109 Those who were sparing agent.121 In the Systolic Hypertension in the already diabetic had fewer CV events in the diuretic group Elderly Program (SHEP) trial, the positive benefits of than with ACEI treatment. Trials longer than 1 year diuretic therapy were not apparent when serum potassium duration using modest doses of diuretics generally have levels were below 3.5 mmol/L.126 However, other studies Chobanian et al
JNC 7 – COMPLETE REPORT
have become available in generic form, their cost has beenreduced. Despite the various benefits of diuretics, they remainunderutilized.128 Achieving Blood Pressure Control in
Individual Patients
The algorithm for the treatment of hypertensive patients is
shown in Figure 16. Therapy begins with lifestyle modifica-
tion, and if the BP goal is not achieved, thiazide-type
diuretics should be used as initial therapy for most patients,
either alone or in combination with one of the other classes
(ACEIs, ARBs, BBs, CCBs) that have also been shown to
reduce one or more hypertensive complications in random-
ized controlled outcome trials. Selection of one of these other
agents as initial therapy is recommended when a diuretic
cannot be used or when a compelling indication is present
that requires the use of a specific drug, as listed in Table 12.
If the initial drug selected is not tolerated or is contraindi-
cated, then a drug from one of the other classes proven to
reduce cardiovascular events should be substituted.
Since most hypertensive patients will require 2 or more antihypertensive medications to achieve their BP goals,addition of a second drug from a different class should beinitiated when use of a single agent in adequate doses fails toachieve the goal. When BP is more than 20 mm Hg abovesystolic goal or 10 mm Hg above diastolic goal, considerationshould be given to initiate therapy with 2 drugs, either as Figure 16. Algorithm for treatment of hypertension.
separate prescriptions or in fixed-dose combinations (Figure16).129 have not demonstrated increased ventricular ectopy as a The initiation of therapy with more than one drug increases result of diuretic therapy.127 Despite potential adverse the likelihood of achieving BP goal in a more timely fashion.
metabolic effects of diuretics, with laboratory monitoring, The use of multidrug combinations often produces greater BP thiazide-type diuretics are effective and relatively safe for reduction at lower doses of the component agents, resulting in the management of hypertension.
fewer side effects.129,130 Thiazide diuretics are less expensive than other antihyper- The use of fixed-dose combinations may be more conve- tensive drugs, although as members of other classes of drugs nient and simplify the treatment regimen and may cost less TABLE 12.
Clinical Trial and Guideline Basis for Compelling Indications for Individual Drug Classes
Recommended Drugs Compelling Indication* Clinical Trial Basis† ACC/AHA Heart Failure Guideline,132MERIT-HF,133 COPERNICUS,134 CIBIS,135SOLVD,136 AIRE,137 TRACE,138 ValHEFT,139RALES,140 CHARM141 ACC/AHA Post-MI Guideline,142 BHAT,143SAVE,144 Capricorn,145 EPHESUS146 High coronary disease risk ALLHAT,109 HOPE,110 ANBP2,112 LIFE,102CONVINCE,101 EUROPA,114 INVEST147 NKF-ADA Guideline,88,89 UKPDS,148ALLHAT109 Chronic kidney disease NKF Guideline,89 Captopril Trial,149RENAAL,150 IDNT,151 REIN,152 AASK153 Recurrent stroke prevention BB indicates ␤-blocker; ACEI, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor; ARB, angiotensin receptor blocker; CCB, calcium channel blocker; Aldo ANT, aldosterone *Compelling indications for antihypertensive drugs are based on benefits from outcome studies or existing clinical guidelines; the compelling indication is managed in parallel with the BP.
†Conditions for which clinical trials demonstrate benefit of specific classes of antihypertensive drugs used as part of an antihypertensive regimen to achieve BP goal to test outcomes.
than the individual components prescribed separately. Use of Ischemic Heart Disease
generic drugs should be considered to reduce prescription Hypertensive patients are at increased risk for myocardial costs, and the cost of separate prescription of multiple drugs infarction (MI) or other major coronary event and may be at available generically may be less than nongeneric, fixed-dose higher risk of death following an acute MI. Myocardial combinations. The starting dose of most fixed-dose combi- oxygen supply in hypertensives may be limited by coronary nations is usually below the doses used in clinical outcome artery disease (CAD) while myocardial oxygen demand is trials, and the doses of these agents should be titrated upward often greater because of the increased impedance to left to achieve the BP goal before adding other drugs. However, ventricular ejection and the frequent presence of left ventric- caution is advised in initiating therapy with multiple agents, ular hypertrophy (LVH).154 Lowering both SBP and DBP particularly in some older persons and in those at risk for reduces ischemia and prevents CVD events in patients with orthostatic hypotension, such as diabetics with autonomic CAD, in part by reducing myocardial oxygen demand. One caveat with respect to antihypertensive treatment in patientswith CAD is the finding in some studies of an apparent Follow-Up and Monitoring
increase in coronary risk at low levels of DBP. For example, Once antihypertensive drug therapy is initiated, most patients in the SHEP study, lowering DBP to ⬍55 or 60 mm Hg was should return for follow-up and adjustment of medications at associated with an increase in cardiovascular events, includ- monthly intervals or less until the BP goal is reached. More ing MI.155 No similar increase in coronary events (a J-shaped frequent visits will be necessary for patients with stage 2 curve) has been observed with SBP. Patients with occlusive hypertension or with complicating comorbid conditions. Se- CAD and/or LVH are put at risk of coronary events if DBP is rum potassium and creatinine should be monitored at least 1 low. Overall, however, many more events are prevented than to 2 times/year. After BP is at goal and stable, follow-up visits caused if BP is aggressively treated.
can usually be at 3- to 6-month intervals. Comorbidities such Stable Angina and Silent Ischemia as HF, associated diseases such as diabetes, and the need for Therapy is directed toward preventing MI and death and laboratory tests influence the frequency of visits. Other reducing symptoms of angina and the occurrence of ischemia.
cardiovascular risk factors should be monitored and treated to Unless contraindicated, pharmacological therapy should be their respective goals, and tobacco avoidance must be pro- initiated with a BB.142,156 BBs will lower BP, reduce symp- moted vigorously. Low-dose aspirin therapy should be con- toms of angina, improve mortality, and reduce cardiac output, sidered only when BP is controlled because of the increased heart rate, and AV conduction. The reduced inotropy and risk of hemorrhagic stroke when the hypertension is not heart rate decrease myocardial oxygen demand. Treatment should also include smoking cessation, management of dia-betes, lipid lowering, antiplatelet agents, exercise training, Special Situations in
and weight reduction in obese patients.
If angina and BP are not controlled by BB therapy alone, or if BBs are contraindicated, as in the presence of severe Hypertension may exist in association with other conditions reactive airway disease, severe peripheral arterial disease, in which there are compelling indications for use of a high-degree AV block, or the sick sinus syndrome, either particular treatment based on clinical trial data demonstrating long-acting, dihydropyridine or nondihydropyridine-type benefits of such therapy on the natural history of the associ- CCBs may be used. CCBs decrease total peripheral resis- ated condition (Table 12). Compelling indications for specific tance, which leads to reduction in BP and in wall tension.
therapy involve high-risk conditions that can be direct se- CCBs also decrease coronary resistance and enhance postste- quelae of hypertension (HF, ischemic heart disease, chronic notic coronary perfusion. Nondihydropyridine CCBs also can kidney disease, recurrent stroke) or commonly associated decrease heart rate, but when in combination with a BB, they with hypertension (diabetes, high coronary disease risk).
may cause severe bradycardia or high degrees of heart block.
Therapeutic decisions in such individuals should be directed Therefore, long-acting dihydropyridine CCBs are preferred at both the compelling indication and BP lowering.
for combination therapy with BBs. If angina or BP is still notcontrolled on this two-drug regimen, nitrates can be added, The absence of a positive indication can signify a lack of but these should be used with caution in patients taking information for a particular drug class. For example, in phosphodiesterase-5 inhibitors such as sildenafil. Short- recurrent stroke, there is no study employing CCBs or ARBs.
acting dihydropyridine CCBs should not be used because of Different stages of the conditions may dictate different their potential to increase mortality, particularly in the setting strategies. In HF management, thiazide-type diuretics are of acute MI.
recommended for reducing the incidence of HF but not inlengthening survival in individuals who already have the condition. Furthermore, widespread use of combination ther- The HF syndrome occurs when the heart is incapable of apy in clinical trials confounds interpretation of the effects of maintaining sufficient flow to accommodate tissue perfusion single drugs. In the Perindopril Protection Against Recurrent and metabolic requirements. Forty to 50% of patients with Stroke Study (PROGRESS) trial, recurrent stroke rate was symptoms of HF may have preserved systolic function. These reduced only when a thiazide-type diuretic was added to patients are more likely to have hypertension, LVH, and ACEI background therapy.
isolated diastolic dysfunction and are more likely to be Chobanian et al
JNC 7 – COMPLETE REPORT
women.141,157 A variety of neurohormonal systems, especially tality by 34%.140 In the Eplerenone Post-Acute Myocardial the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone and sympathetic nervous Infarction Heart Failure Efficacy and Survival Study (EPHE- systems may be activated in response to the LV dysfunction, SUS), eplerenone reduced mortality by 15% in patients but such activation may lead to abnormal ventricular remod- following a recent MI with LVEF ⱕ40%, 90% of whom had eling, further LV enlargement, and reduced cardiac contrac- HF symptoms.140 Hyperkalemia is a risk with aldosterone tility. The inexorable progression to more severe stages of LV antagonists, even at low doses (especially since most patients dysfunction can be significantly reduced by effective therapy also are taking ACEIs or ARBs), but its incidence can be with ACEIs, BBs, and diuretics.
reduced by limiting therapy to patients with serum creatinine Hypertension precedes the development of HF in approx- ⬍2.5 mg/dL and monitoring serum potassium carefully.
imately 90% of patients and increases risk for HF by 2- to BP targets in HF have not been firmly established, but 3-fold. Hypertension is especially important in HF affecting lowering SBP is almost uniformly beneficial. In most suc- African Americans and the elderly. CAD is the cause of HF cessful trials, systolic blood pressures were lowered to the in approximately two-thirds of HF patients in the United range of 110 to 130 mm Hg. One trial demonstrated benefits States. The true incidence of HF has been unchanged in men of ␤-blockade in patients with SBP ⬎85 mm Hg,134 suggest- and has declined among women during the past 50 years.158 ing that very low BPs (eg, SBP ⬍100 mm Hg) may be However, HF hospitalization rates have more than doubled in desirable in some HF patients.
the past 20 years159 because of the improved therapy resulting Digoxin continues to be used in HF despite inconsistent in increased life expectancy. HF will probably become even clinical results. In the Digitalis Investigation Group (DIG) more prevalent in the future as our population ages.
trial, it did not reduce mortality in NYHA class II–III patients Optimal therapy for HF may require the use of specialized taking ACEIs and diuretics but did reduce HF symptoms and HF disease management programs and utilization of a variety of health professionals to reinforce treatment recommenda-tions. American College of Cardiology/American Heart As- Diabetes and Hypertension
sociation (ACC/AHA) guidelines are available to manage The combined unadjusted prevalence of total diabetes and HF.132 In the stage A group (New York Heart Association impaired fasting glucose in those over 20 years old is 14.4% [NYHA] class I), those at high risk for HF but no demon- and is the leading cause of blindness, ESRD, and nontrau- strable clinical symptoms or LV dysfunction, treatment matic amputations.161–165 Type 2 diabetes constitutes over should include fastidious risk factor management to control 90% of diabetes in the United States and is associated with a BP, hypercholesterolemia, and hyperglycemia. ACEIs may 70% to 80% chance of premature death from CVD and be appropriate because of their beneficial effects on mortality stroke.166–170 The concordance of hypertension and diabetes in patients at high risk for CVD.110,114 The ALLHAT study is increased in the population; hypertension is disproportion- also has suggested that thiazide-diuretic therapy is useful in ately higher in diabetics,171 while persons with elevated BP preventing disease progression.109 In stage B HF (NYHA are 2.5 times more likely to develop diabetes within 5 class I) as defined by the presence of reduced LV function years.172,173 The common absence of normal nocturnal "dip- (ejection fraction [EF] ⱕ40%) in otherwise asymptomatic ping" of BP in diabetics is linked to other CVD surrogates individuals, ACEIs and BBs are recommended. Stage C such as LVH and microalbuminuria.171 patients (NYHA class II–III) manifest LV dysfunction and The coexistence of hypertension in diabetes is particularly overt symptoms, and in these individuals, ACEIs and BBs are pernicious because of the strong linkage of the 2 conditions again indicated. Aldosterone antagonists also may be of value with all CVD,168,169 stroke,87,109,110,168,169,174–176 progression in this situation.140 Loop diuretics are often necessary to of renal disease,165,175,177,178 and diabetic retinopathy.179 The control volume retention. However, there is no evidence that United Kingdom Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS)174 diuretics prevent progression of disease, and diuretics can demonstrated that each 10 mm Hg decrease in SBP was also increase serum creatinine levels when used in excess.
associated with average reductions in rates of diabetes-related Patients with stage D (NYHA class IV) HF may require mortality of 15%; myocardial infarction, 11%; and the advanced care, such as inotropic drugs, implantable defibril- microvascular complications of retinopathy or nephropathy, lators, biventricular pacemakers, mechanical-assist devices, 13%. Randomized controlled trials that have included large or transplantation, in addition to the treatment described diabetic populations, including UKPDS, Hypertension Opti- above for stage C patients.
mal Treatment (HOT) Trial, SHEP, Syst-EUR,67 HOPE HF is a "compelling indication" for the use of ACEIs.
Study,110 Losartan Intervention For Endpoint Reduction in Abundant evidence exists to justify their use with all stages of Hypertension Study (LIFE), and ALLHAT, have demon- HF (Table 12). In patients intolerant of ACEIs, ARBs may be strated that adequate BP control improves CVD outcomes, used. BBs are also recommended in HF because of clinical especially stroke, when aggressive BP targets are studies demonstrating decreased morbidity and mortality and improvement in HF symptoms (Table 12).
Microalbuminuria (30 to 300 mg/d) is associated with Aldosterone antagonists may provide additional benefit in increased CVD risk in diabetics and other high-risk pa- patients with severe LV dysfunction, usually late stage C tients.67,181 Overt albuminuria (⬎300 mg/d or ⬎200 mg/g (NYHA class III–IV). In the Randomized Aldactone Evalu- creatinine on spot urine) or renal insufficiency (estimated ation Study (RALES), low-dose spironolactone (12.5 to 25 GFR ⬍60 mL/min, corresponding to serum creatinine ⬎1.5 mg daily), when added to standard therapy, decreased mor- in men or ⬎1.3 mg/dL in women) defines the presence of chronic kidney disease (CKD) in diabetic patients. SBP Calcium channel blockers may be useful in diabetics, correlates better than DBP with renal disease progression in particularly as part of combination therapy to control BP.
diabetics.171,177,178,182,183 The rate of decline in renal function They were shown to reduce CVD events in diabetics com- among patients with diabetic nephropathy has been reported pared with placebo in several clinical outcome tri- to be a continuous function of arterial pressure down to als.87,101,113,118 In the diabetic cohort of ALLHAT, amlodipine approximately 125 to 130 mm Hg SBP and 70 to 75 mm Hg was as effective as chlorthalidone in all categories except HF, where it was significantly inferior.109 The Appropriate Blood The JNC 7 recommendations are consistent with guidelines Pressure Control in Diabetes (ABCD) study in diabetics was from the American Diabetes Association (ADA),88,164 which stopped prematurely when it was found that the dihydropyr- has also recommended that BP in diabetics be controlled to idine nitrendipine was inferior to lisinopril in reducing the levels of 130/80 mm Hg or lower (although available data are incidence of ischemic cardiac events.188 However, in normo- somewhat sparse to justify the low target level of 130/ tensive diabetics in the Second ABCD (ABCD2) study, 80 mm Hg). Whatever the goal level, rigorous control of BP nitrendipine was equivalent to lisinopril in stroke prevention is paramount for reducing the progression of diabetic ne- and in retardation of the development of albuminuria.189 phropathy to ESRD.88,164,177,178,181–183 Chronic Kidney Disease
Regarding the selection of medications, clinical trials with diuretics, ACEIs, BBs, ARBs, and calcium antagonists have Age and Kidney Function demonstrated benefit in the treatment of hypertension in both Renal excretory function, as represented by GFR, deteriorates type 1 and type 2 diabetics.87,88,109,164,175,180 The question of with age beginning in the third or fourth decade of life. By the which agent class is superior for lowering BP is somewhat sixth decade, GFR commonly declines by 1 to 2 mL/min per moot because the majority of diabetic patients will require 2 year. This age-related loss of renal function is proportional to or more drugs to achieve BP control.164,171,184 BP level, and the rate of GFR deterioration can accelerate to4 to 8 mL/min per year if SBP remains uncontrolled.165 Such Thiazide-type diuretics are beneficial in diabetics, either rates of deterioration may lead to the development of ESRD alone or as part of a combined regimen. In the prespecified and the need for dialysis or transplantation, especially in diabetic subgroup of ALLHAT, therapy that began with those with other coexistent renal disease.
chlorthalidone reduced the primary end point of fatal CHD CKD is defined as either (1) reduced excretory function and MI to the same degree as therapy based on lisinopril or with an eGFR ⬍60 mL/min/1.73 m2 (approximately corre- amlodipine. Of potential concern is the tendency for thiazide- sponding to a creatinine of ⬎1.5 mg/dL in men or ⬎1.3 type diuretics to worsen hyperglycemia, but this effect tended mg/dL in women) or (2) the presence of albuminuria (⬎300 to be small and did not produce more CV events compared mg/d or 200 mg/g creatinine). In a number of laboratories, with the other drug classes.185 serum creatinine is being replaced as an index of renal Therapy with an ACEI also is an important component of function by eGFR, the values of which are derived from newer algorithms that include adjustments for gender, race, tients.67,172,173,178,179 ACEIs may be used alone for BP lower- and age. These algorithms are available on web sites.66 The ing but are much more effective when combined with a measurements appear to be of greater value than 24-hour thiazide-type diuretic or other antihypertensive drugs. The urine collections for creatinine clearance.
ADA has recommended ACEIs for diabetic patients over 55 Urinary albumin excretion has diagnostic and prognostic years old at high risk for CVD and BBs for those with known value equivalent to reduced eGFR. To avoid inaccuracies CAD.88 In the Micro-Hope subanalysis of the HOPE Study, associated with 24-hour urine collections, spot urine samples which included both hypertensive and normotensive individ- may be used and the ACR determined. Microalbuminuria is uals,186 high-risk diabetic patients treated with ACEI added to present when the spot urine ACR is between 30 and 200 mg conventional therapy showed a reduction in combined MI, albumin/g creatinine. ACR values ⬎200 mg albumin/g cre- stroke, and CVD death of about 25% and reduction in stroke by atinine signify the presence of CKD.
about 33% compared with placebo plus conventional therapy.
With respect to microvascular complications, the ADA has CVD Risk in CKD recommended both ACEIs and ARBs for use in Type 2 diabetic CVD is the most common cause of death in individuals with patients with CKD because these agents delay the deterioration CKD, and CKD is itself an independent risk factor for CVD.
in GFR and the worsening of albuminuria.88,164,171,181 Individuals with eGFR ⬍60 mL/min have an approximate BBs, especially ␤ 16% increase in CVD mortality, and individuals with eGFR 1-selective agents, are beneficial in dia- betics as part of multidrug therapy, but their value as 30 mL/min, a 30% increase.190 CVD risk also exhibits a continuous relationship with albuminuria; the presence of monotherapy is less clear. A BB is indicated in a diabetic with microalbuminuria confers a 50% increase in risk and the ischemic heart disease but may be less effective in preventing presence of macroalbuminuria, a 350% increase.191 stroke than an ARB, as was found in the LIFE study.187Although BBs can cause adverse effects on glucose ho- meostasis in diabetics, including worsening of insulin sensi- NHANES III data indicated that about 3% (5.6 million tivity and potential masking of the epinephrine-mediated people) of adults in the United States had elevated serum symptoms of hypoglycemia, these problems are usually easily creatinine values and 70% of these had hypertension.192 managed and are not absolute contraindications for BB use.
While 75% of individuals received treatment, only 11% with Chobanian et al
JNC 7 – COMPLETE REPORT
hypertension and elevated serum creatinine had BP ⬍130/ stroke period and is thought by some to be a compensatory 85 mm Hg and only 27% had BP ⬍140/90 mm Hg.193 In the physiological response to improve cerebral perfusion to prevention of CKD, the value of vigorous antihypertensive ischemic brain tissue. As a result, it has been common therapy is most pronounced in those individuals with the practice after acute cerebral infarction to reduce or withhold greatest degrees of albuminuria. In the Modification of Diet BP treatment until the clinical condition has stabilized. There and Renal Disease (MDRD) study, individuals with protein- still are no large clinical studies on which to base definitive uria had slower rates of progression to ESRD if their SBP recommendations. Nevertheless, the American Stroke Asso- values were ⬍130 mm Hg. A meta-analysis of individuals ciation has provided the following guidelines: In patients with with CKD and albuminuria found that positive predictors of recent ischemic stroke whose SBP is ⬎220 mm Hg or DBP outcome were lower SBP levels (110 to 129 mm Hg), lower 120 to 140 mm Hg, cautious reduction of BP by about 10% to albumin excretion ratio (AER) (⬍1.0 g/d), and the presence 15% is suggested, while carefully monitoring the patient for of ACEI therapy.194,195 However, in the African American neurological deterioration related to the lower pressure. If the Study of Kidney Disease and Hypertension (AASK) study of DBP is ⬎140 mm Hg, carefully monitored infusion of so- African American individuals with hypertensive CKD, those dium nitroprusside should be used to reduce the BP by 10 to achieving a mean BP of 128/78 mm Hg experienced renal deterioration at the same rate as those achieving a mean of BP control affects the use of thrombolytic agents in 141/85 mm Hg.196 Many studies demonstrate that antihyper- ischemic stroke. SBP ⬎185 mm Hg or diastolic pressures tensive regimens that include an ACEI or ARB are more ⬎110 mm Hg are contraindications to the use of tissue effective in slowing progression of CKD than other antihy- plasminogen activator (t-PA) within the first 3 hours of an ischemic stroke. Once a thrombolytic agent has been initi- The joint recommendations of the American Society of ated, BP should be monitored closely, especially in the first Nephrology and the National Kidney Foundation (NKF) 24 hours after initiation of treatment. SBP ⱖ180 mm Hg or provide useful guidelines for management of hypertensive DBP ⱖ105 mm Hg usually necessitates therapy with intra- patients with CKD. They recommend a goal BP for all CKD venous agents to prevent intracerebral bleeding.199 patients of ⬍130/80 mm Hg and a need for more than 1 Other Special Situations
antihypertensive drug to achieve this goal. The guidelinesindicate that most patients with CKD should receive an ACEI or an ARB in combination with a diuretic and that many will The prevalence, impact, and control of hypertension differ require a loop diuretic rather than a thiazide. In addition, if across racial and ethnic subgroups of the US population. In there is a conflict between the goals of slowing progression of African Americans, hypertension is more common, more CKD and CVD risk reduction, individual decision-making is severe, develops at an earlier age, and leads to more clinical recommended, based on risk stratification.
sequelae than in age-matched non-Hispanic whites.200 Mex-ican Americans and Native Americans have lower control Patients with Cerebrovascular Disease
rates than non-Hispanic whites and African Americans.201,202 The risk of clinical complications of cerebrovascular disease The pathogenesis of hypertension in different racial sub- including ischemic stroke, hemorrhagic stroke, and dementia groups may differ with respect to the contributions of such increases as a function of BP levels. Given the population factors as salt, potassium, stress, cardiovascular reactivity, distribution of BP, most ischemic strokes occur in individuals body weight, nephron number, sodium handling, or hormonal with prehypertension or stage 1 hypertension. The incidence systems, but in all subgroups, the pathogenesis is multifacto- of ischemic or hemorrhagic stroke is reduced substantially by rial.200,203 African Americans have a greater prevalence of treatment of hypertension. No specific agent has proven to be other cardiovascular risk factors, especially obesity.200,203 clearly superior to all others for stroke protection. In the LIFE Much of the variance in hypertension-related sequelae across study, there were fewer strokes in the losartan-treated group racial or ethnic groups may be attributable to differences in than in the group treated with atenolol.102 In the ALLHAT socioeconomic conditions, access to healthcare services, or study, the stroke incidence was 15% greater with ACEI than attitudes, beliefs, and deficits in accurate health-related infor- with thiazide-type diuretic or dihydropyridine CCB, but the mation.200,203 For example, when medications and provider BP reduction in the lisinopril group was also less than with services were provided free of charge as in the Hypertension chlorthalidone or amlodipine.109 Detection and Follow-up Program, African American men With respect to the prevention of recurrent stroke, treated with the intensive "Stepped-Care Approach" actually PROGRESS demonstrated that addition of the diuretic inda- benefited more than whites.204 pamide to the ACEI perindopril caused a 43% reduction in Weight reduction and sodium reduction are recommended stroke occurrence.111 The reduced incidence of stroke ap- for all prehypertensive and hypertensive patients but may be peared related to the BP reduction obtained by the combina- particularly effective in minorities. The salt content of some tion therapy even though many patients on entry into the traditional diets in minorities may be very high.205 The study were not hypertensive.197 No significant reduction was low-sodium DASH eating plan was associated with greater present in those on perindopril alone whose BP was only reductions in BP in African Americans than other demo- 5/3 mm Hg lower than in the control group.
graphic subgroups.94 In clinical trials, lowering BP prevents The management of BP during an acute stroke remains sequelae of hypertension in all racial or ethnic groups.200,203 controversial. BP is often elevated in the immediate post- Nonetheless, monotherapy with BBs, ACEIs, or ARBs lowers BP to a somewhat lesser degree in African Americans than TABLE 13.
Clinical Criteria Defining the Metabolic Syndrome
whites.109,206–208 In the ALLHAT trial with more than 15 000 in ATP III
blacks, the ACEIs were less effective in lowering blood Waist circumference pressure than either the thiazide-type diuretic or the CCBs.
⬎102 cm (⬎40 inches) for men This was associated with a 40% greater risk of stroke, 32% ⬎88 cm (⬎35 inches) for women greater risk of HF, and 19% greater risk of CVD in thoserandomized to the ACEI versus the diuretic.109 The interracial differences in BP-lowering observed with these drugs are ⱖ130 mm Hg systolic and/or abolished when they are combined with a diuretic.109,203,208 ⱖ85 mm Hg diastolic Racial differences in incidence of antihypertensive drug side effects may occur; African Americans and Asians have a ⱖ110 mg/dL or 6.1 mmol/L 3- to 4-fold higher risk of angioedema109,209,210 and have more cough attributed to ACEIs than whites.211 ⱖ150 mg/dL or 1.69 mmol/L Several other benefits of treatment have been demonstrated in minority populations. A 28% reduction in mortality was ⬍40 mg/dL (1.04 mmol/L) in men observed in African Americans who received BB therapyafter acute myocardial infarction compared with those not ⬍50 mg/dL (1.29 mmol/L) in women receiving a BB.212 A greater degree of preservation of renal Source: Executive Summary of the Third Report of The National Cholesterol function occurred in African Americans with hypertensive Education Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treat-ment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (Adult Treatment Panel III). JAMA nephrosclerosis treated with a regimen containing an ACEI compared with BB or a calcium antagonist.196 No largeoutcome studies have been carried out with ARBs in African metabolic syndrome in adults in the United States was American and other minority patients. Unfortunately, suffi- estimated at 23.7% or about 47 million individuals.221 BMI cient numbers of Mexican Americans, other Hispanic Amer- (kg/m2) is related to the metabolic syndrome in both men and icans, Native Americans, or Asian/Pacific Islanders have not women (Table 14).222 In addition, because abdominal obesity been included in most of the major clinical trials to allow is also correlated with the metabolic syndrome, ATP III uses reaching strong conclusions about their responses to individ- it rather than BMI. This becomes important in overweight ual antihypertensive therapies.
individuals with a BMI 25 to 29.9 kg/m2 and large waist Irrespective of whether race or ethnicity should be a circumference (⬎40 inches in men, ⬎35 inches in women) significant consideration in the choice of individual antihy- who may have metabolic syndrome despite not being obese.
pertensive drugs, the use of combination or multiple antihy- The metabolic syndrome will likely increase further in the pertensive drug therapy, which usually includes a thiazide- next several years, primarily because of the rapid increase in type diuretic, in minority groups will lower BP and reduce the obesity. The health problems related to the metabolic syn- burden of hypertension-related cardiovascular and renal drome will likely escalate dramatically.
Age Trends The prevalence of the metabolic syndrome is highly age-dependent. A prevalence of 7% among adults aged 20 to 29 Definition and AssociationsThe term "metabolic syndrome" describes a constellation of years rises to 40% or more among Americans over 60 years old.
cardiovascular risk factors related to hypertension, abdominal Clinical Impact obesity, dyslipidemia, and insulin resistance. The definition The metabolic syndrome is associated in men with a 4-fold adopted by the National Cholesterol Education Program increase in risk for fatal CHD and a 2-fold greater risk of (Adult Treatment Panel [ATP] III) guidelines in 200121 is the CVD and all-cause mortality, even after adjustment for age, presence of 3 or more of the 5 risk factors (Table 13). The LDL-C, smoking, and family history of CHD.223 The meta- World Health Organization has a somewhat different defini- bolic syndrome is associated with increased CHD risk in tion of the metabolic syndrome, but for consistency JNC 7 women.224 Patients with the metabolic syndrome have a 5- to has adopted the ATP III definition.
9-fold increased risk of developing diabetes.225,226 Several other associated features have been reported, includ- ing hyperinsulinemia, insulin resistance, and higher density of TABLE 14.
Estimated Prevalence of the Metabolic Syndrome
LDL-C particles.213 The metabolic syndrome has also been Using the ATP III Definition Among Normal Weight, Overweight,
associated with high levels of inflammatory risk markers,214 and Obese Men and Women in NHANES III222
reduced fibrinolysis (including elevated plasminogen activator Metabolic Syndrome inhibitor-1),215 heightened magnitude of oxidative stress,216,217 microalbuminuria,218 abnormalities in autonomic regulation,219and activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone axis.220 When the ATP III criteria were applied to the data from the NHANES III survey (1988 –1994), the prevalence of the Chobanian et al
JNC 7 – COMPLETE REPORT
TABLE 15.
Relative 10-Year Risk for Diabetes, Hypertension,
TABLE 16.
Lifestyle Changes Beneficial in Reducing Weight*
Heart Disease, and Stroke Over the Next Decade Among Men
Initially Free of Disease Stratified by Baseline BMI231
Decrease time in sedentary behaviors such as television watching, videogame play, or spending time online Increase physical activity such as walking, biking, aerobic dancing, tennis, soccer, basketball, etc.
Decrease portion sizes for meals, snacks Reduce portion sizes or frequency of consumption of calorie-containingbeverages *For more detailed information refer to the Clinical Guidelines on the Identification, Evaluation, and Treatment of Overweight and Obesity in Adults.
Obes Res. 1998;6(suppl):51S–209S.
Clinical Management of the Metabolic SyndromeThe cornerstone for clinical management in adults is appro- whom obesity and related health problems are increasing at priate lifestyle changes.
nearly double the rate in ethnic minorities compared withwhites.232,233 The rapid increase in the population of ethnic Overweight and Obesity. Treatment of overweight and obe- minorities in the United States is another factor that will lead sity is summarized in the next section using key principles in to a rise in the prevalence of obesity and its complications the Clinical Guidelines on the Identification, Evaluation, and unless effective, culturally diverse, population-based health Treatment of Overweight and Obesity in Adults.227 promotion strategies are promoted.
Physical Activity. The metabolic syndrome can improve with Prevention and Lifestyle Modifications for Overweight increased physical activity.228 (See the section Prevention and and Obesity Lifestyle Modifications for Overweight and Obesity.) The major goal of management of both the metabolic syn- Prehypertension and Hypertension. The vast majority of drome and overweight and obesity is to reduce the age-related individuals with the metabolic syndrome will fall into the rate of weight gain. This challenging task will require a categories of prehypertension or stage 1 hypertension. Life- complex combination of healthy behaviors, including de- style modification is the cornerstone of management in all crease in sedentary activities, increase in physical activity, patients with prehypertension or with the metabolic syn- and reduction in calorie intake (Table 16). Simple yet drome, but if BP exceeds 140/90 mm Hg, pharmacological practical suggestions include reducing time spent watching therapy is indicated as described in the hypertension treat- television or being online and increasing time spent walking ment algorithm (Figure 16).
or in activities that raise heart rate. The emphasis for weightmanagement should be on avoidance of excess total energy Lipids. Elevated TG and reduced HDL are typical lipid intake and a regular pattern of physical activity. Reducing abnormalities in metabolic syndrome. Elevated LDL is not a food portion sizes and limiting fat intake can assist in prime feature of metabolic syndrome but is important in reducing overall calorie intake. High-sodium diets may be clinical management.21 especially deleterious in obese subjects.234 Specific nutrient intakes for individuals should be based on Impaired Glucose Tolerance and Diabetes. Modest lifestyle lipoprotein levels, BP, and the presence of coexisting heart change including healthful nutrition and increased physical disease, diabetes, and other risk factors. For example, adop- activity can reduce the development of diabetes by nearly tion of the well-studied low-sodium DASH eating plan94 60% in high-risk individuals.229 Management guidelines pub- provides heart-healthy foods that can be used to promote lished by the American Diabetes Association are appropriate weight loss, reduce BP in both hypertensive and prehyper- for individuals with impaired fasting glucose and diabetes.230 tensive individuals, and reduce LDL. The benefits of modest lifestyle changes on cardiovascular risk factors are well All patients with lipid abnormalities for LDL, HDL, or TG documented. In the Framingham Heart Study, weight loss of should be treated according to the ATP III recommendations.21 5 pounds or greater was associated with reductions incardiovascular risk of about 40%.235 A 10% reduction in body Overweight and Obesity
weight can reduce disease risk factors.227 Prevalence and Epidemiology Physical activity is a key feature of treatment. Increased Using the NHANES databases for the periods 1988 to 1994 physical activity, when combined with a reduction in calories, versus 1999 to 2000, the age-adjusted prevalence of obesity is essential to weight loss success. Based on the available (BMI ⱖ30 kg/m2) among US adults increased from 22.9% to evidence, the recommendation is to engage in regular phys- 30.5%,33 while the prevalence of overweight (BMI ⱖ25 ical activity at least 30 minutes per day, most days of the kg/m2) increased from 55.9% to 64.5%. Obese subjects, week (see Table 9). In addition, physical activity is critical to especially men, with no other risk factors have increased the maintenance of weight loss and is important for overall relative risk for CVD (Table 15).231 reduction in cardiovascular risk; 60 to 90 minutes per week of Obesity occurs more often among Hispanics, Native Amer- walking can reduce CHD mortality by about 50%.236 The icans, and African Americans than whites in the United CVD benefits of slow walking appear to be comparable to States. These demographic differences extend to children, in those of walking more quickly, suggesting that the most important predictor of benefit was walking time, not speed.
electrocardiography, was reduced significantly more by a Exercise programs appear beneficial at any age and are losartan-based than atenolol-based regimen despite equiva- associated with overall reductions in CVD outcomes by about lent BP lowering.102 50%.237 Although aerobic fitness may negate much of thecardiovascular risk associated with obesity, Peripheral Arterial Disease
238 studies report Major risk factors for peripheral arterial disease (PAD) are that individuals with obesity have much lower levels of hypertension, diabetes, and smoking. Symptomatic peripheral physical activity and poorer aerobic fitness than leaner arterial disease is associated with a greatly increased risk of death from CVD, in part because diffuse atherosclerosis, Left Ventricular Hypertrophy
CAD, and renovascular disease frequently coexist in these The common feature of all forms of LVH is increased left patients. Therefore, more intensive screening for these related ventricular mass, although there are many different presenta- cardiovascular disorders is appropriate in persons with PAD.
tions and subtypes, each with different prognosis and thera- Renovascular hypertension should be strongly considered in py.240 LVH subclasses can be characterized generally by the this population if BP is uncontrolled and if ACEI or ARB relative wall thickness, the presence or absence of reduced treatment is being considered.
contractility, and the end-diastolic chamber size. LVH can Antihypertensive drug treatment is ineffective in relieving occur in endurance athletes with normal or supranormal the symptoms of PAD, and vasodilator agents such as ACEIs, systolic function, large end-diastolic volumes, and elongation CCBs, ␣-adrenergic blockers, and direct vasodilators do not of myofibrils (eccentric hypertrophy). LVH due to hyperten- improve walking distance or symptoms of claudication.247–249 sion is usually characterized by concentric hypertrophy with This lack of efficacy may be due to inability of maximally circumferential hypertrophy of myofibrils, normal or in- dilated diseased vessels to dilate further during exercise, creased contractility, increased relative wall thickness, nor- redistribution of flow caused by the creation of a "steal" mal or low end-diastolic volumes, and at times impaired phenomenon where blood flow increases in nondiseased relaxation (diastolic dysfunction). In population-based sam- vascular beds at the expense of diseased beds, or alteration of ples, 30% to 50% of individuals with stage 1 and 2 hyper- pressure–flow relationships distal to the occluded areas by BP tension have impaired LV relaxation, and in more severe reduction. BBs may cause peripheral vasoconstriction and forms of hypertension, about two-thirds have abnormal LV have the potential to increase the frequency of intermittent relaxation. In untreated or poorly treated individuals, LVH claudication in individuals with PAD. However, recent stud- becomes a major risk factor for dilated cardiomyopathy and ies have shown that BBs have little effect on walking distance or calf blood flow in patients with intermittent claudica-tion.250 Thus, BBs can be used in PAD patients, especially if Detection and Risk needed for treatment of CAD or HF.
Echocardiography is much more sensitive than electrocardi- No selective outcome benefit has been demonstrated for ography (ECG) for detection of LVH, although ECG-LVH is any individual class of antihypertensive medication in pa- a highly specific indicator for the condition. Individuals with tients with PAD.109 Therefore, antihypertensive drug choices LVH are more than twice as likely to suffer premature should be made on the basis of the presence or absence of cardiovascular events or death. Current ECG algorithms compelling indications. If Raynaud's phenomenon is present, defining LVH produce a high false-positive rate in African CCBs can be used.251 LDL lowering will reduce the risk for Americans and overestimate the prevalence of LVH in this CVD events in people with PAD.252 population.242,243 The attributable risk of LVH for all-causemortality is greater than that of single or multivessel coronary artery disease or low EF.
Treating hypertension in PAD patients reduces the risk of MI,stroke, HF, and death.253 A structured walking program has been shown to increase the pain-free and maximum walking Several studies suggest that LVH regression is associated distances in patients with intermittent claudication.254 Smok- with a lower overall CVD risk. Weight loss, salt restriction, ing cessation may be the most important factor in whether and BP lowering with most antihypertensive agents produce PAD progresses. Patients should be encouraged and assisted LVH regression. Selection of individual drugs appears to be to stop smoking. Lipid abnormalities should be controlled less important, but certain trends have emerged. Fifty studies using lifestyle modification or drugs as appropriate. Coexist- of LVH regression conducted before 1996 were subjected to ing glucose intolerance or insulin resistance calls for in- meta-analysis.244 In these studies, predictors of LV mass creased exercise and weight reduction, and aggressive man- reduction during treatment were higher pretreatment LV agement of diabetes is indicated. Table 17 outlines medical mass, greater fall in SBP or DBP, and longer duration of therapies of PAD.
treatment. The most consistent reduction in LV mass wasachieved with ACEIs, the least reduction occurred with BBs, Hypertension in Older People
and intermediate benefits occurred for diuretics and calcium The number of Americans aged 65 years or older has antagonists. However, in both the Treatment of Mild Hyper- increased from 24.2 million to 32.6 million from 1980 to tension Study and the VA Cooperative Monotherapy trial, 2000 and is expected to continue to rise.255 SBP increases diuretic therapy achieved the greatest benefit in LV mass almost linearly with age in industrialized societies (Figure reduction.245,246 The LIFE study found that LVH, defined by 12), as does the overall prevalence of hypertension and the Chobanian et al
JNC 7 – COMPLETE REPORT
TABLE 17.
Medical Therapy of Peripheral Arterial Disease
as HF events (54%), myocardial infarctions (27%), andoverall CVD (32%)24 as compared with the placebo group.
Using a similar design and sample size, the Syst-EUR study Achieve ideal body weight compared a regimen based on nitrendipine to placebo and Structure exercise program found a significant reduction in stroke (41%) as well as Achieve goal blood pressure overall CVD events (31%).113 A meta-analysis of 8 placebo- Control lipids (goal LDL ⬍100 mg/dL) controlled trials in 15 693 elderly patients followed for 4 Prevent or control diabetes years found that active antihypertensive treatment reduced Administer antiplatelet therapy (aspirin, clopidogrel, or both) coronary events (23%), strokes (30%), cardiovascular deaths(18%), and total deaths (13%), with the benefit particularly Consider use of Cilostazol for symptoms of claudication if exercise alone isineffective great in those older than 70 years.258 Benefits of therapy havebeen demonstrated even in individuals over 80 yearsold.116,259 Analyses of treatment trials in the elderly by the proportion of hypertensives with isolated SBP elevation Hypertension Trialists group have suggested that the choice (ISH) (Figure 17).192 In contrast, DBP increases in parallel of initial agent is less important than the degree of BP with SBP until about age 55, after which it declines as a reduction achieved.90 manifestation of age-related increases in central arterial Accurate and representative BP measurement can pose stiffness. By age 60, about two-thirds of those with hyper- special problems in some older individuals (see the section tension have ISH, and by age 75, almost all hypertensives Accurate Blood Pressure Measurement in the Office). BP is have systolic hypertension and about three-fourths of hyper- more variable in the older patient, often due to stiff large tensives have ISH.
arteries and age-related decreases in baroreflex buffering.
Individuals over age 60 represent the most rapidly growing Exaggerated BP drops may occur in the elderly during segment of the US population, and even in those who remain postural change (see the section Orthostatic Hypotension), normotensive between 55 and 65 years old, there remains a after meals,260 and after exercise.97 Pseudohypertension, lifetime risk of developing hypertension that exceeds 90%.16 where cuff BP overestimates the actual intra-arterial pressure At the same time, there is a 3- to 4-fold increase in CVD risk due to relative inability of the BP cuff to compress a in older compared with younger individuals. These factsprompted the NHBPEP to issue a Clinical Advisory statement thickened, stiff, or calcified brachial artery, is an uncommon in May, 2000, stating that SBP should be the primary target condition in older persons. But this condition should be for the diagnosis and management of older people with strongly considered if usual treatment does not reduce BP, hypertension.256 Currently, BP control rates (systolic especially in those patients who complain of symptoms ⬍140 mm Hg and diastolic ⬍90 mm Hg) are only about 20% consistent with postural hypotension.261 A relatively small in older hypertensives, largely due to poor control of SBP.257 percentage of elderly patients have a reversible form ofhypertension, most commonly due to renovascular disease, which is seen most often in smokers.262 In the SHEP study involving hypertensives over 60 years old SBP provides more appropriate classification and risk with pretreatment SBP ⬎160 and DBP ⬍90 mm Hg, indi- stratification than DBP in the elderly. In the Framingham viduals treated with chlorthalidone (with or without BB) had Heart Study, SBP alone correctly classified the BP stage in reductions in the primary end point of stroke (36%), as well 94% of adults over 60 years old, while DBP alone correctlyclassified 66%.192 Pulse pressure (PP) (SBP ⫺ DBP) is onlymarginally stronger than SBP for risk stratification in indi-viduals over age 60, but under age 60, PP is not useful as aCVD risk predictor.18 PP generally decreases as a result ofSBP lowering,24,263 but no prospective clinical trial has usedPP as the primary clinical end point. Thus, on balance, SBPis superior to PP and DBP as a way to stratify patients and asa target for treatment in older persons.
Although there is no randomized prospective clinical trial that has conclusively proven the benefits of treatment inindividuals with Stage 1 systolic hypertension (140 to159 mm Hg), hypertension therapy should not be withheld inthese patients, and therapy should not be withheld on thebasis of age. There is no definitive evidence of an increase in Figure 17. Frequency distribution of untreated hypertensive
individuals by age and hypertension subtype. Frequency distri-
risk of aggressive treatment (a J-curve) unless DBP is bution of untreated hypertensive individuals by age and hyper- lowered to ⬍55 or 60 mm Hg by treatment.155 tension subtype. Numbers at the tops of bars represent theoverall percentage distribution of untreated hypertension in that age group. f, ISH (SBPⱖ140 mm Hg and DBP ⬍90 mm Hg); u, Weight loss and reduced sodium intake are particularly SDH (SBP ⱖ140 mm Hg and DBP ⱖ90 mm Hg); 䡺, IDH (SBP beneficial in older people. In Trial of nonpharmacologic ⬍140 mm Hg and DBP ⱖ90 mm Hg). Source: Franklin SS et al.
Hypertension 2001;37:869 – 874.
Interventions in the Elderly (TONE), reducing sodium to 80 mmol (2 g) per day reduced BP over 30 months, and about sion may also lead to transient high readings that are not 40% of those on the low-salt diet were able to discontinue experienced throughout the day. This can be documented by their antihypertensive medications.264 When weight loss was home BP or ambulatory BP readings.
combined with salt reduction, an additional BP decrease was Inadequate diuretic therapy is common in resistant hyper- seen. Older persons should also be encouraged to avoid tension. Volume overload, once recognized, can be managed excessive alcohol intake and remain as physically active as by use of appropriate diuretics. While a thiazide-type diuretic is recommended for the majority of hypertensive patients, a Use of specific drug classes in older people is largely loop diuretic is often required for patients who have a similar to that recommended in the general algorithm and for decreased GFR or HF.
individual compelling indications. Combination therapy with Failure to receive adequate medications can be the result of two or more drugs is generally needed to achieve optimal BP reluctance on the part of the patient or practitioner to use control. In routine practice, if the systolic goal is achieved, effective doses of medications. Causes and approaches to the diastolic goal will almost always be reached as well.
nonadherence are discussed in subsequent sections of this A significant number of elderly individuals have widely variable BP with exaggerated high and low extremes. Such Drug interactions that induce resistance may be difficult to individuals deserve consideration for a slow titration ap- detect unless the patient is asked open-ended questions proach, as do individuals with a history of medication side regarding what they take when experiencing pain and what effects and those with orthostatic hypotension. Unfortunately, food supplements, health food preparations, and over-the- the misperception that many elderly have "brittle hyperten- counter and Internet-purchased medications and supplements sion" has contributed to widespread inadequacy of drug they use. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and pressor titration and to poor BP control.
agents in cold remedies, nasal vasodilators, and some non- traditional remedies may counter the antihypertensive effects BP measurements are typically recorded in the sitting posi- of prescribed medications.
tion. This practice, while convenient for the practitioner, If resistant hypertension persists after remediable causes limits the ability to diagnose orthostatic hypotension (OH).
are identified and corrected, then a concerted search for a Normally, standing is accompanied by a small increase in cause of secondary hypertension should be conducted (Table DBP and a small decrease in SBP when compared with 7). If resistance still persists, consultation with a hypertension supine values. OH is present when there is a supine-to- specialist is a logical next step.
standing BP decrease ⬎20 mm Hg systolic or ⬎10 mm Hg Specific causes of resistant hypertension are listed in Table diastolic. There is more OH in diabetics. OH occurred in 18. They usually can be identified by appropriate evaluation, about 7% of men over 70 years old in the Honolulu Heart and, once identified, can almost always be treated effectively.
Study, was highly age-dependent, and carried with it a 64% The prevalence of truly resistant hypertension is small.
increase in age-adjusted mortality compared with a controlpopulation.265 There is a strong correlation between the Cognitive Function and Dementia
severity of OH and premature death as well as increased Dementia and cognitive impairment occur more commonly numbers of falls and fractures.265–267 The causes of OH in people with hypertension. Reduced progression of include severe volume depletion, baroreflex dysfunction, cognitive impairment may occur with effective antihyper- autonomic insufficiency, and certain venodilator antihyper- tensive therapy.269,270 Narrowing and sclerosis of small tensive drugs, especially ␣-blockers and ␣-␤-blockers. Di- penetrating arteries in the subcortical regions of the brain uretics and nitrates may further aggravate OH.
are common findings on autopsy in chronic hyperten- In treating older hypertensive patients, clinicians should be sion.271–274 These changes are believed to contribute to alert to potential OH symptoms such as postural unsteadiness, hypoperfusion, loss of autoregulation, compromise of the dizziness, or even fainting. Lying and standing BPs should be blood-brain barrier, and ultimately to subcortical white obtained periodically in all hypertensive individuals over 50 matter demyelination, microinfarction, and cognitive de- years old. OH is a common barrier to intensive BP control cline. MRI studies in persons with chronic hypertension that should be clearly documented; if present, drug therapy have revealed greater numbers of subcortical white matter should be adjusted accordingly and appropriate warnings lesions and microinfarcts, astrogliosis, ventricular enlarge- given to patients.
ment, and extracellular fluid accumulation than in age-matched controls.275–285 Resistant Hypertension
Resistant hypertension is defined as the failure to achieve
Mild cognitive impairment (MCI) is a diagnostic category goal BP in patients who are adhering to full doses of an that represents a transitional state between normal aging and appropriate 3-drug regimen that includes a diuretic. Several mild dementia in which patients exhibit signs of poor recent causes of resistant hypertension may be present.
memory but can still perform daily tasks such as managing Improper BP measurement can lead to overestimation of finances, driving, shopping, and preparing meals.286 Hyper- intra-arterial pressure. (See section on BP measurement.) tension and hypercholesterolemia are risk factors for MCI Falsely high readings may also be observed in those whose and for other signs of cognitive decline, such as impaired brachial arteries are heavily calcified or arteriosclerotic and attention, reaction time, verbal fluency, or executive cannot be fully compressed.268 Clinic or white-coat hyperten- Chobanian et al
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TABLE 18.
Causes of Resistant Hypertension
Awareness, Treatment, and Control of High BP in Women.
Women are more likely than men to know that they have Improper BP measurement hypertension, to have it treated, and to have it controlled.1 In NHANES III, approximately 75% of hypertensive black and Excess sodium intake white women were aware of their high BP in contrast to just Volume retention from kidney disease 65% of hypertensive men in these ethnic groups. Overall,61% of hypertensive women, but only 44% of men, were Inadequate diuretic therapy being treated with antihypertensive medications. The higher Drug-induced or other causes treatment rates in women have been attributed to increased numbers of physician contacts.
Menopause and Blood Pressure. The effect of menopause on BP is controversial. Longitudinal studies have not docu- Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs; cyclooxygenase 2 inhibitors mented a rise in BP with menopause, while cross-sectional Cocaine, amphetamines, other illicit drugs studies have found significantly higher SBP and DBP inpostmenopausal versus premenopausal women.294 In Sympathomimetics (decongestants, anorectics) NHANES III, the rate of rise in SBP tended to be steeper in Oral contraceptive hormones postmenopausal compared with premenopausal women until Adrenal steroid hormones the sixth decade, when the rate of increase tended to slow.
Cyclosporine and tacrolimus Staessen et al296 reported that even after adjustment for ageand BMI, postmenopausal women are more than twice as likely to have hypertension as premenopausal women. In a Licorice (including some chewing tobacco) prospective study of conventional and ambulatory BP levels, Selected over-the-counter dietary supplements and medicines (eg, postmenopausal women had higher SBP (4 to 5 mm Hg) than ephedra, ma haung, bitter orange) pre- and perimenopausal controls.297 The increase in SBP per Associated conditions decade was 5 mm Hg greater in the peri- and postmenopausal women than in the premenopausal group. Thus, there isevidence that at least part of the rise in BP (particularly SBP) Excess alcohol intake seen later in life in women is due to menopause. A Identifiable causes of hypertension (See Table 7.) menopause-related increase in BP has been attributed to avariety of factors, including estrogen withdrawal, overpro-duction of pituitary hormones, weight gain, or a combinationof these and other yet undefined neurohumoral influences.298 Effective antihypertensive therapy strongly reduces the Postmenopausal Hormone Therapy and BP. Results of stud- risk of developing significant white matter changes on ies evaluating the effects of hormone replacement therapy MRI.290 However, existing white matter changes, once (HRT) on BP have been inconsistent. The Women's Health established, do not appear to be reversible.291,292 The Initiative (WHI), the largest longitudinal study to address this optimal SBP/DBP to prevent cognitive decline in older question, found an average 1 mm Hg increase in SBP over 5.6 individuals is thought by some to be in the SBP 135 to years of follow-up among 8506 postmenopausal women 150 mm Hg and DBP 70 to 79 mm Hg range.287,288 In the randomized to conjugated equine estrogen and medroxypro- SystEUR trial, CCB therapy was superior to placebo in gesterone acetate as compared with a placebo group.299 There slowing the decline in cognitive function, was no difference in DBP between the hormone treatment groups. Further, in the WHI cross-sectional analysis of almost parative data are available regarding whether certain 100 000 women aged 50 to 79 years, current hormone use classes of antihypertensive drugs are superior to others in was associated with a 25% greater likelihood of having preventing cognitive decline.
hypertension compared with past use or no prior use.300 Smaller observational and interventional studies have Hypertension in Women
found different results. In the Baltimore Longitudinal Study Nonpregnant Women on Aging (BLSA), women receiving HRT had a significantlysmaller increase in SBP over time than nonusers, but DBP Sexual Dimorphism of BP and Hypertension Prevalence in was not affected. The Postmenopausal Estrogen/Progestin Women. There is a sexual dimorphism in BP, such that Intervention trial showed no effect of HRT on SBP or women have lower SBP levels than men during early adult- DBP.301 In small studies that have used 24-hour ambulatory hood, while the opposite is true after the sixth decade of life.
monitoring to evaluate the effects of HRT on BP, while DBP tends to be just marginally lower in women than men overall results are inconsistent, several of the studies suggest regardless of age.294 Similarly, in early adulthood, hyperten- that HRT improves or restores the normal nighttime reduction sion is less common among women than men. However, after ("dipping") in BP that may be diminished in postmenopausal the fifth decade of life, the incidence of hypertension in- women. Such an effect would tend to reduce total BP load creases more rapidly in women than men, and the prevalence and thereby reduce target organ damage.298 of hypertension in women is equal to or exceeds that in men Overall, HRT-related change in BP is likely to be modest during the sixth decade of life. The highest prevalence rates and should not preclude hormone use in normotensive or of hypertension are observed in elderly black women, with hypertensive women. All hypertensive women treated with hypertension occurring in more than 75% of women older HRT should have their BP monitored closely at first and then than 75 years.295 at 6-month intervals.
TABLE 19.
Classification of Hypertension in Pregnancy
Chronic hypertension BP ⱖ140 mm Hg systolic or 90 mm Hg diastolic prior to pregnancy or before 20 weeks gestation Persists ⬎12 weeks postpartum BP ⱖ140 mm Hg systolic or 90 mm Hg diastolic with proteinuria (⬎300 mg/24 h) after 20 weeks gestation Can progress to eclampsia (seizures) More common in nulliparous women, multiple gestation, women with hypertension for ⱖ4 years, family history ofpreeclampsia, hypertension in previous pregnancy, renal disease Chronic hypertension with New onset proteinuria after 20 weeks in a woman with hypertension In a woman with hypertension and proteinuria prior to 20 weeks gestation: Sudden 2- to 3-fold increase in proteinuria Sudden increase in BP Elevated AST or ALT Gestational hypertension Hypertension without proteinuria occurring after 20 weeks gestation Temporary diagnosis May represent preproteinuric phase of preeclampsia or recurrence of chronic hypertension abated in midpregnancy May evolve to preeclampsia If severe, may result in higher rates of premature delivery and growth retardation than mild preeclampsia Transient hypertension Retrospective diagnosis BP normal by 12 weeks postpartum May recur in subsequent pregnancies Predictive of future primary hypertension ALT indicates alanine aminotransferase; AST, aspartate aminotransaminase; BP, blood pressure.
Oral Contraceptives and BP. Many women taking oral con- also similar in men and women, but for coronary events, it traceptives experience a small but detectable increase in BP; was greater in men. Similarly, a placebo-controlled trial of a small percentage experience the onset of frank hyperten- CCB treatment showed treatment benefits for both sex- sion. This is true even with modern preparations that contain es.113,304 More recent outcome trials comparing ACEIs, only 30 ␮g estrogen. The Nurses' Health Study found that ARBs, or CCBs with diuretics and BBs in older, high-risk current users of oral contraceptives had a significantly in- patients have generally shown similar benefits for women and creased (relative risk [RR]⫽1.8; 95% confidence interval men.101,102,109 The current evidence indicates that the sex of [CI]⫽1.5 to 2.3) risk of hypertension compared with never the patient should not play a role in decisions about whether users.302 Absolute risk was small: only 41.5 cases of hyper- or not to treat high BP.
tension per 10 000 person-years could be attributed to oralcontraceptive use. Controlled prospective studies have dem- Choice of Antihypertensive Drugs for Women. While womengenerally respond to antihypertensive drugs similarly to men, onstrated a return of BP to pretreatment levels within 3 some special considerations may dictate treatment choices for months of discontinuing oral contraceptives, indicating that women. ACEIs and ARBs are contraindicated for women their BP effect is readily reversible.
who are or intend to become pregnant because of the risk of Oral contraceptives occasionally may precipitate acceler- fetal developmental abnormalities. Diuretics are particularly ated or malignant hypertension. Family history of hyperten- useful in elderly individuals because of a decreased risk of hip sion, including preexisting pregnancy-induced hypertension, fracture. Some antihypertensive drugs have gender-specific occult renal disease, obesity, middle age (⬎35 years), and adverse effect profiles. For example, in the TOMHS study, duration of oral contraceptive use increase susceptibility to women reported twice as many adverse effects as men.305 hypertension. Contraceptive-induced hypertension appears to Women are more likely to develop diuretic-induced hypona- be related to the progestogenic, not the estrogenic, potency of tremia, and men more likely to develop gout. Hypokalemia is the preparation.
more common in women taking a diuretic. ACEI-induced Regular monitoring of BP throughout contraceptive ther- cough is twice as common in women as in men, and women apy is recommended, and it has been suggested that contra- are more likely to complain of CCB-related peripheral edema ceptive prescriptions be limited to 6 months to ensure at least and minoxidil-induced hirsutism.
semiannual reevaluations. Withdrawal of the offending con-traceptive agent is generally desirable in cases of Pregnant Women contraceptive-induced hypertension, but such therapy may Hypertensive disorders in pregnancy are a major cause of have to be continued in some women (eg, if other contracep- maternal, fetal, and neonatal morbidity and mortality. Hyper- tive methods are not suitable) and combined with antihyper- tension in pregnancy is classified into 1 of 5 categories (Table tensive therapy.
19), and it is critical to differentiate preeclampsia, a Outcomes of Antihypertensive Trials in Women. Relative pregnancy-specific syndrome of exaggerated vasoconstric- benefits of antihypertensive therapy do not appear to differ tion and reduced organ perfusion, from pre-existing chronic between the sexes.303 Absolute risk reduction for stroke was Chobanian et al
JNC 7 – COMPLETE REPORT
TABLE 20.
Treatment of Chronic Hypertension in Pregnancy
Preferred on the basis of long-term follow-up studies supportingsafety Reports of intrauterine growth retardation (atenolol) Increasingly preferred to methyldopa because of reduced sideeffects Calcium antagonists No increase in major teratogenicity with exposure Not first-line agents ACEIs, angiotensin II receptor antagonists Reported fetal toxicity and death ACEIs indicate angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor; BBs, beta blockers.
Prepregnancy Assessment. Women should be evaluated prior sive medications while maintaining close observation, includ- to conception to define their BP status, and, if hypertensive, ing use of home BP monitoring. This approach reflects to assess its severity, possible secondary causes, and presence concern about the safety of antihypertensive drug treatment in of target organ damage and to plan treatment strategies. Many pregnancy. A meta-analysis of 45 randomized controlled hypertensive women who plan to become pregnant should be studies of treatment with several classes of antihypertensive screened for pheochromocytoma because of the high morbid- drugs in Stage 1 and 2 hypertension in pregnancy showed a ity and mortality of this condition if not diagnosed antepar- direct linear relationship between treatment-induced fall in tum. In hypertensive women planning to become pregnant, it mean arterial pressure and the proportion of small-for- may be prudent prior to conception to change to antihyper- gestational-age infants.307 This relationship was independent tensive medications known to be safe during pregnancy, such of type of hypertension, type of antihypertensive agent, and as methyldopa or BBs. ACEIs and ARBs should be discon- duration of therapy.
tinued prior to attempts at conception or as soon as pregnancy However, for pregnant women with target organ damage or is confirmed. Those with progressive renal diseases should be a prior requirement for multiple antihypertensive agents for encouraged to complete their childbearing while their renal BP control, antihypertensive medication should be continued function is relatively well preserved. Mild renal disease as needed to control BP. In all cases, treatment should be (serum creatinine ⬍1.4 mg/dL) has a minimal effect on fetal reinstituted once BP reaches 150 to 160 mm Hg systolic or survival, and the underlying renal disease does not generally 100 to 110 mm Hg diastolic, in order to prevent increases in worsen during pregnancy. However, moderate or severe renal BP to very high levels during pregnancy. Aggressive treat- insufficiency in pregnancy may accelerate both hypertension ment of severe chronic hypertension in the first trimester is and the underlying disease and markedly reduce fetal critical, since fetal loss rates of 50% and significant maternal mortality have been reported in these patients.308 Most of thepoor outcomes are related to superimposed preeclampsia Treatment of Chronic Hypertension During Pregnancy. (Table 19). Further, women with chronic hypertension are Women with Stage 1 hypertension are at low risk for cardiovas- also at higher risk for adverse neonatal outcomes if protein- cular complications during pregnancy and are candidates for uria is present early in pregnancy. Fetal loss and acceleration lifestyle modification therapy only, as there is no evidence that of maternal renal disease increase at serum creatinine levels pharmacological treatment improves neonatal outcomes. Fur- ⬎1.4 mg/dL at conception.
ther, BP usually falls during the first half of pregnancy; there- Antihypertensive Drug Selection. The primary goal of treat- fore, hypertension may be easier to control with reduced or no ing chronic hypertension in pregnancy is to reduce maternal medications. With lifestyle modification, aerobic exercise risk, but the choice of antihypertensive agent(s) is largely should be restricted on the basis of theoretical concerns that driven by the safety of the fetus. Methyldopa is preferred by inadequate placental blood flow may increase the risk of many as first-line therapy, based on reports of stable utero- preeclampsia, and weight reduction should not be attempted, placental blood flow and fetal hemodynamics and the absence even in obese pregnant women. Although the data on pregnant of long-term (7.5-year follow-up) adverse effects on devel- women are sparse, many experts recommend restriction of opment of children exposed to methyldopa in utero.309,310 sodium intake to the same 2.4 g sodium intake recommended for Other treatment options are summarized in Table 20.
those with primary hypertension.7 Use of alcohol and tobaccomust be strongly discouraged. Use of antihypertensive drugs Preeclampsia. Preeclampsia is more common in women with in pregnant women with chronic hypertension varies greatly chronic hypertension, with an incidence of approximately among centers. Some clinicians prefer to stop antihyperten- 25%. Risk factors for superimposed preeclampsia include TABLE 21.
Treatment of Acute Severe Hypertension in Preeclampsia
5 mg IV bolus, then 10 mg every 20 to 30 minutes to a maximum of25 mg, repeat in several hours as necessary Labetalol (second-line) 20 mg IV bolus, then 40 mg 10 minutes later, 80 mg every 10 minutesfor 2 additional doses to a maximum of 220 mg 10 mg PO, repeat every 20 minutes to a maximum of 30 mg Caution when using nifedipine with magnesium sulfate, can seeprecipitous BP drop Short-acting nifedipine is not approved by US Food and DrugAdministration for managing hypertension Sodium nitroprusside 0.25 ␮g/kg/min to a maximum of 5 ␮g/kg/min (rarely when others fail) Fetal cyanide poisoning may occur if used for more than 4 hours renal insufficiency, a history of hypertension for 4 years or might be prudent to withhold antihypertensive medication, longer, and hypertension in a previous pregnancy. Prevention with close monitoring of BP, and reinstitute antihypertensive of preeclampsia relies on identification of high-risk women therapy following discontinuation of nursing. No short-term and close clinical and laboratory monitoring aimed at its early adverse effects have been reported from exposure to methyl- recognition, and institution of intensive monitoring or deliv- dopa or hydralazine. Propanolol and labetalol are preferred if ery when indicated. Treatment of preeclampsia includes a BB is indicated. ACEIs and ARBs should be avoided on the hospitalization for bed rest, control of BP, seizure prophy- basis of reports of adverse fetal and neonatal renal effects.
laxis in the presence of signs of impending eclampsia, and Diuretics may reduce milk volume and thereby suppress timely delivery. Importantly, many women with preeclampsia lactation. Breast-fed infants of mothers taking antihyperten- have previously been normotensive, so acute BP elevations sive agents should be closely monitored for potential adverse even to modest levels (ie, 150/100 mm Hg) may cause significant symptomatology and require treatment. Treatment Recurrence of Hypertension. Hypertension recurs in a large does not alter the underlying pathophysiology of the disease, proportion (20% to 50%) of subsequent pregnancies. Risk but it may slow its progression and provide time for fetal factors for recurrence include early onset of hypertension in maturation. Preeclampsia rarely remits spontaneously and in the first pregnancy, a history of chronic hypertension, persis- most cases worsens with time.
tent hypertension beyond 5 weeks postpartum, and elevated While delivery may be appropriate therapy for the mother, it may compromise a fetus of less than 32 weeks gestation.
BP early in pregnancy. Women with preeclampsia have a Regardless of gestational age, delivery should be strongly greater tendency to develop hypertension than those with considered when there are signs of fetal distress or intrauter- ine growth retardation or signs of maternal problems, includ- Hypertension in Children and Adolescents
ing severe hypertension, hemolysis, elevated liver enzymes, In children and adolescents, hypertension is defined as low platelet count, deteriorating renal function, visual distur- elevated BP that persists on repeated measurement at the 95th bance, headache, or epigastric pain. Vaginal delivery is percentile or greater for age, height, and gender (Table 22).
preferable to cesarean delivery to avoid the added stress of As with adults, the fifth Korotkoff sound is used to define Clinicians should be alert to the possibility of identifiable Antihypertensive Drug Therapy. Antihypertensive therapy causes of hypertension in younger children. Secondary forms should be prescribed only for maternal safety; it does not of hypertension are more common in children and in individ- improve perinatal outcomes and may adversely affect utero- uals with severe hypertension (⬎20 mm Hg above the 95th placental blood flow. Selection of antihypertensive agents percentile). Chronic hypertension is becoming increasingly and route of administration depends on anticipated timing of common in adolescence and is generally associated with delivery. If delivery is likely more than 48 hours off, oral obesity, sedentary lifestyle, and a positive family history of methyldopa is preferred because of its safety record. Oral hypertension and other CVDs. Like adults, children and labetalol is an alternative, and other BBs and calcium antag- adolescents with established hypertension develop target onists are also acceptable on the basis of limited data (Table organ damage, including LVH. Appropriate assessment for 20). If delivery is imminent, parenteral agents are practical LVH, including echocardiography, should be considered in and effective (Table 21). Antihypertensives are administered children who have significant and persisting hypertension.
before induction of labor for persistent DBPs of 105 to Lifestyle interventions should be recommended for all 110 mm Hg or higher, aiming for levels of 95 to 105 mm Hg.
children with hypertension, with pharmacological therapy Treating Hypertension During Lactation. Hypertensive instituted for higher levels of BP or if insufficient response to mothers can usually breast-feed safely. However, all antihy- lifestyle modifications occurs. Teenage children with BP pertensive drugs that have been studied are excreted into below but near the 95th percentile should adopt healthy human breast milk. Therefore, in mothers with stage 1 lifestyles similar to adults with prehypertension. Although the hypertension who wish to breast-feed for a few months, it recommendations for drug choices are generally similar in Chobanian et al
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TABLE 22.
95th Percentile of Blood Pressure by Selected Ages, by the 50th and
75th Height Percentiles, and by Gender in Children and Adolescents
Source: Adapted from Update on the 1987 Task Force Report on High Blood Pressure in Children and Adolescents: A working group report from the National High Blood Pressure Education Program.
Pediatrics. 1996;98:649 – 658.
children and adults, dosages of antihypertensive medication to reduce mean arterial BP by no more than 25% (within for children should be smaller and adjusted very carefully.
minutes to 1 hour), then, if stable, to 160/100 to 110 mm Hg ACEIs and ARBs should not be used if the patient is within the next 2 to 6 hours. Excessive falls in pressure that pregnant. These agents should be used with extreme caution may precipitate renal, cerebral, or coronary ischemia should in sexually active teenage girls and only when careful be avoided. For this reason, short-acting nifedipine is no counseling and effective pregnancy precautions are longer considered acceptable in the initial treatment of hypertensive emergencies or urgencies. If this level of BP is The presence of uncomplicated hypertension should not be well tolerated and the patient is clinically stable, further a reason to restrict children from participating in physical gradual reductions toward a normal BP can be implemented activities, particularly because exercise may lower BP. Use of in the next 24 to 48 hours. There are exceptions to the above anabolic steroid hormones for the purpose of bodybuilding recommendation—patients with an ischemic stroke in which should be strongly discouraged. Efforts should be made to there is no clear evidence from clinical trials to support the identify other modifiable risk factors in children (eg, obesity, use of immediate antihypertensive treatment, patients with lack of physical activity, smoking), and vigorous interven- aortic dissection who should have their SBP lowered to tions should be made when present. Detailed recommenda- ⬍100 mm Hg if tolerated, and patients in whom BP is tions regarding hypertension in children and adolescents can lowered to enable the use of thrombolytic agents (see the be found in the 1996 NHBPEP Working Group Report on section on stroke).
Hypertension Control in Children and Adolescents.311 Some patients with hypertensive urgencies may benefit from treatment with an oral, short-acting agent such as Hypertensive Crises: Emergencies and Urgencies
captopril, labetalol, or clonidine followed by several hours of Hypertensive emergencies are characterized by severe eleva- observation. However, there is no evidence to suggest that tions in BP (⬎180/120 mm Hg) complicated by evidence of failure to aggressively lower BP in the emergency room is impending or progressive target organ dysfunction. They associated with any increased short-term risk to the patient require immediate BP reduction (not necessarily to normal) to who presents with severe hypertension. Such a patient may prevent or limit target organ damage.312,313 Examples include also benefit from adjustment in their antihypertensive ther- hypertensive encephalopathy, intracerebral hemorrhage, apy, particularly the use of combination drugs, or reinstitution acute myocardial infarction, acute left ventricular failure with of medications if noncompliance is a problem. Most impor- pulmonary edema, unstable angina pectoris, dissecting aortic tantly, patients should not leave the emergency room without aneurysm, or eclampsia. Hypertensive urgencies are those a confirmed follow-up visit within 1 to a few days.
situations associated with severe elevations in BP without Unfortunately, the term "urgency" has led to overly ag- progressive target organ dysfunction. Examples include upper gressive management of many patients with severe, uncom- levels of stage II hypertension associated with severe head- plicated hypertension. Aggressive dosing with intravenous ache, shortness of breath, epistaxis, or severe anxiety. The drugs or even oral agents to rapidly lower BP is not without majority of these patients present as noncompliant or inade- risk. Oral loading doses of antihypertensive agents can lead to quately treated hypertensives, often with little or no evidence cumulative effects causing hypotension, sometimes following of target organ damage.
discharge from the emergency room. Patients who continue to Early triage to establish the appropriate therapeutic strate- be noncompliant will often return to the emergency room gies for these patients is critical to limiting morbidity and within weeks.
mortality.314 Patients presenting with severe hypertensionmay represent as much as 25% of all patient visits to busy Erectile Dysfunction and Hypertension
urban emergency rooms.315 Erectile dysfunction (ED), defined as the inability to have and Patients with a hypertensive emergency should be admitted maintain an erection adequate for intercourse, becomes in- to an Intensive Care Unit for continuous monitoring of BP creasingly common in men over 50 years old and is even and parenteral administration of an appropriate agent (Table more common if they are hypertensive.316 In a survey of over 23). The initial goal of therapy in hypertensive emergencies is 3000 health professionals, the frequency of ED was 4% in TABLE 23.
Parenteral Drugs for Treatment of Hypertensive Emergencies*
Adverse Effects† Special Indications 0.25–10 ␮g/kg/min as IV Nausea, vomiting, muscle Most hypertensive twitching, sweating, thiocynate and emergencies; caution with cyanide intoxication high intracranial pressure orazotemia Tachycardia, headache, flushing, Most hypertensive emergencies except acute heart failure; caution withcoronary ischemia 0.1–0.3 ␮g/kg per min IV Tachycardia, headache, nausea, Most hypertensive emergencies; caution withglaucoma 5–100 ␮g/min as IV infusion§ Headache, vomiting, Coronary ischemia methemoglobinemia, tolerancewith prolonged use 1.25–5 mg every 6 h IV Precipitous fall in pressure in Acute left ventricular failure; high-renin states; variable avoid in acute myocardial Tachycardia, flushing, headache, vomiting, aggravation of angina Adrenergic inhibitors 20–80 mg IV bolus every 10 min Vomiting, scalp tingling, Most hypertensive emergencies except acute nausea, heart block, orthostatic 0.5–2.0 mg/min IV infusion 250–500 ␮g/kg/min IV bolus, Hypotension, nausea, asthma, Aortic dissection, then 50–100 ␮g/kg/min by first-degree heart block, HF infusion; may repeat bolus after5 min or increase infusion to300 ␮g/min 5–15 mg IV bolus Tachycardia, flushing, headache Catecholamine excess *These doses may vary from those in the Physicians' Desk Reference (51st edition).
†Hypotension may occur with all agents.
‡Requires special delivery system.
men under age 50, 26% in those 50 to 59, and 40% in those between a CCB, ACEI, hydrochlorothiazide, or BB compared 60 to 69.316 The frequency was significantly higher if they with placebo.103 In other studies, centrally acting ␣-agonists were hypertensive, diabetic, obese, or smokers or were taking have been associated with ED, while ACEIs, ARBs, and antidepressants or BBs.
CCBs have not been observed to increase its incidence.317,318 Whereas hypertension per se may be associated with A lower risk of ED was reported among men who were ED,317 the use of various antihypertensive medications may physically active, not obese, and nonsmokers.316 Therefore, increase the incidence, in part because BP lowering itself may lifestyle modifications should be encouraged to forestall ED.
cause reduction of perfusion of genital organs. Available data If ED appears after institution of antihypertensive drug regarding individual effects of antihypertensive drug therapy therapy, the offending agent should be discontinued and are confounded by age, vascular disease, and hormonal status.
treatment restarted with another agent. Sildenafil or other In the TOMHS study involving antihypertensive drugs from phosphodiesterase-5 inhibitors may be prescribed without a five different classes (excluding ARBs), participants random- significant likelihood of adverse reactions in those with ized to chlorthalidone reported a significantly higher inci- concomitant antihypertensive therapy so long as nitrates are dence of erection problems at 24 months of the study than participants randomized to placebo. Incidence rates through There are no definitive data on a relation between sexual 48 months were more similar among treatment groups than at dysfunction and hypertension in women. Regardless of gen- 24 months, with nonsignificant differences between chlortha- der, clinicians should be willing to discuss sexual dysfunction lidone and placebo groups.123 In the VA Cooperative trial, no problems and offer counseling to improve the patient's difference in incidence of sexual dysfunction was noted quality of life.
Chobanian et al
JNC 7 – COMPLETE REPORT
Urinary Outflow Obstruction
monitored closely in the dental office if general anesthesia is Symptoms of urinary outflow obstruction or a known history administered to hypertensives because of potential wide of obstruction should be elicited as part of the hypertension fluctuations in BP and the risk of hypotension in those workup. When a normal bladder is distended beyond approx- receiving antihypertensive drugs. CCBs and other vasodila- imately 300 mL, sympathetic nervous system stimulation tors may cause hypertrophy of the gums.
may cause a substantial increase in BP. Patients with highspinal cord injuries in particular may exhibit large acute BP Obstructive Sleep Apnea
Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) occurs in 2% to 4% of the
increases similar to individuals with autonomic dysfunction.
adult population, and over 50% of individuals with OSA have BP control can be improved by keeping the bladder volume hypertension.263,326–333 Obesity is so common in OSA that the below 300 mL and by the use of sympatholytic drugs.
index of suspicion for OSA should be high in any hyperten- Nonsurgical treatment of patients with urinary outflow ob- sive patient whose BMI is above 27 kg/m2.331 These individ- struction includes the use of ␣1-blockers such as terazosin, uals should be questioned thoroughly for symptoms of OSA, doxazosin, or prazosin, which indirectly dilate prostatic and including snoring, witnessed apnea, irregular breathing dur- urinary sphincter smooth muscle and also lower BP.320 ing sleep, restless sleeping, and chronic morning fatigue.
Patients Undergoing Surgery
Frequently it is the sleep partner who provides the most Uncontrolled hypertension is associated with wider fluctua- reliable history, especially regarding snoring, because the tions of BP during induction of anesthesia and intubation and affected individual may deny or be unaware of the problem.
may increase the risk for perioperative ischemic events. BP If the diagnosis is suspected clinically, confirmation by a levels of 180/110 mm Hg or greater should be controlled formal sleep study is indicated. The impact of sleep apnea on prior to surgery.321 For elective surgery, effective BP control CVD is probably related in large part to its association with can be achieved over several days to weeks of outpatient elevated BP. However, OSA may act through a number of treatment. In urgent situations, rapidly acting parenteral mechanisms to elicit myocardial and vascular damage, in- agents such as sodium nitroprusside, nicardipine, and labe- cluding increase in catecholamine release,333,334 activation of talol can be utilized to attain effective control very rapidly.
inflammatory mechanisms,335 insulin resistance,336,337 andendothelial dysfunction.338 Other cardiovascular conditions Surgical candidates with controlled hypertension should associated with OSA include arrhythmias, HF, myocardial maintain their medications until the time of surgery, and infarction, and stroke.331,332,339–344 therapy should be reinstated as soon as possible post- Previous debate about whether OSA is an etiologic factor operatively. Adequate potassium supplementation should be in hypertension has focused largely around the strong asso- provided, if needed, to correct hypokalemia well in advance ciation of OSA with obesity. While obesity is known to of surgery. Older patients may gain particular benefit from contribute in large part to OSA,345–348 patients with OSA may treatment with ␤1-selective BBs before and during the peri- also be at increased risk for weight gain,349 and treatment of operative period.322 OSA may reduce visceral fat.350 It now appears that the Sudden intraoperative hypertension is managed by many of potential causal association between OSA and hypertension the same parenteral antihypertensive agents that are utilized involves both the obesity-hypertension link and an indepen- in the management of hypertensive emergencies (see the dent role of OSA in chronic BP elevation. Episodes of apnea section on emergencies and urgencies).323 Intravenous infu- with repeated oxygen desaturation in OSA have been shown sions of sodium nitroprusside, nicardipine, and labetalol can to stimulate strong sympathetic nervous system discharges be effective. Nitroglycerin is often an agent of choice in that directly elevate BP.333,334 Poorer quality of sleep and patients with coronary ischemia, while the very short-acting shorter sleep periods may play a reinforcing role in the fatigue BB esmolol may be of benefit in managing intraoperative and daytime somnolence. Sleep deprivation alone may raise BP351 and impair glucose tolerance.352 There is also a direct Hypertension is very common in the early postoperative relationship between the severity of sleep apnea and the level period, related to increased sympathetic tone and vascular of BP. Finally, sustained and effective treatment of OSA with resistance.324 Contributing factors include pain and increased continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) has been re- intravascular volume, which may require parenteral dosing ported to lower nighttime and daytime BP in hypertensives with a loop diuretic such as furosemide. If resumption of oral with OSA.353–355 treatment must be interrupted postoperatively, periodic dos- In addition to weight loss, improvements in the quality of ing with intravenous enalaprilat or transdermal clonidine sleep in OSA patients can occur as a result of a variety of hydrochloride may be useful.
positioning measures during sleep, particularly sleeping onone's side. Treatment with CPAP can be useful in overall BP Dental Issues in the Hypertensive Subjects
lowering and may also improve cardiac ischemia356,357 and A concern in dental care is the use of epinephrine in local HF symptoms.331,332 The role of oral prostheses and surgical anesthetic solutions. Many dental providers do not use approaches remains to be fully defined.354 No specific class catecholamine-containing local anesthetic formulations for of antihypertensive drugs has yet been demonstrated to be any patient with elevated BP, as they are concerned with an superior for BP lowering in OSA patients.354 adverse cardiovascular response. A systematic review of thistopic325 concluded that although adverse events may occur in Hypertension and the Eye
uncontrolled hypertensive patients during dental procedures, Hypertension can effect the retina, choroid, and optic nerve of the use of epinephrine had a minimal effect. BP should be the eye, particularly with stage 2 hypertension. These changes can be appreciated with inspection of the retinal vessels by direct ally, renal artery stenosis can lead to reduced kidney function ophthalmoscopy, photography, or angiography.
Hypertensive retinopathy is most commonly manifested by Clinical clues to renovascular disease include (1) onset of generalized or focal narrowing of retinal arterioles. In acute hypertension before age 30 (especially without a family or advanced hypertension, the retinal vasculature may be history) or recent onset of significant hypertension after age injured sufficiently to cause occlusion or leakage. These 55; (2) an abdominal bruit, particularly if it continues into changes may be manifested as nerve fiber layer infarcts (soft diastole and is lateralized; (3) accelerated or resistant hyper- exudates or cotton-wool patches), extravascular edema (hard tension; (4) recurrent (flash) pulmonary edema; (5) renal exudates), intraretinal hemorrhages, and retinal arterial failure of uncertain etiology, especially with a normal urinary sediment; (6) coexisting diffuse atherosclerotic vascular dis- Hypertensive choroidopathy is most frequently seen in ease, especially in heavy smokers; or (7) acute renal failure young patients with acute hypertension, including cases of precipitated by antihypertensive therapy, particularly ACEIs eclampsia or pheochromocytoma. Findings include Elschnig In patients with indications of renovascular disease, captopril- spots (nonperfused areas of the choriocapillaris) and Siegrist enhanced radionuclide renal scan, duplex Doppler flow studies, streaks (linear hyperpigmentation over choroidal arteries).
and magnetic resonance angiography may be used as noninva- Hypertensive optic neuropathy occurring with severe hy- sive screening tests. Three-dimensional images can be obtained pertension may present with flame hemorrhages, optic disc by spiral computed tomography, a technique that necessitates the edema, venous congestion, and macular exudates.358–360 use of intravenous contrast.81 Definitive diagnosis of renovascu- lar disease requires renal angiography, which carries some risk, Hypertension is a relatively common occurrence in patients particularly of radiocontrast-induced acute renal failure or receiving organ transplants; in those receiving kidney allo- grafts, the prevalence of hypertension probably exceeds In patients, usually women, with fibromuscular dysplasia, 65%.361 Nocturnal hypertension, a reversal of diurnal BP results of percutaneous transluminal renal angioplasty rhythm, may be present in these individuals who may need (PTRA) have been excellent and comparable to surgical ABPM to evaluate overall BP control. Hypertension is less revascularization.365 Patients with normal renal function and common in other forms of transplantation. The mechanisms atherosclerotic renal artery stenosis that is focal, unilateral, of hypertension in transplant patients are multifactorial, but and nonostial also may be managed by angioplasty.365 Renal vasoconstriction and long-term vascular structural changes artery stenting has become an important adjunct to PTRA, caused by chronic immunosuppressive drugs that are cal- being used to counteract elastic recoil and to abolish theresidual stenosis often observed after PTRA.366 cineurin inhibitors (cyclosporine and tacrolimus) and corti- Even though many patients with high-grade renal artery costeroids are among the most important.362 Impaired renal stenosis remain stable for prolonged periods if BP is well function is another exacerbating factor; despite successful controlled,367 surgical revascularization or PTRA with renal renal transplantation, most patients have enough impairment artery stenting may be needed to preserve renal function.81 in renal function to cause relative salt and water retention.
Transplant renal artery stenosis may also be a factor.
Drugs and Other Agents Affecting
Observational studies suggest that hypertension correlates with deterioration in graft function. Large-scale, controlled Many prescription drugs and some over-the-counter agents clinical trials on the effects of BP control on GFR decline or and herbal supplements may affect BP and complicate BP on CVD incidence are lacking in this population. The high control in treated hypertensives. Consequently, searching for risk of graft occlusion and cardiovascular events has sug- the presence of these agents in the medical history can gested that BP should be lowered to 130/80 mm Hg or less.
identify a secondary component contributing to BP elevation.
Because of the absence of compelling data, no particular class Such recognition may negate the need to employ unnecessary of antihypertensives can be considered to be superior to any and potentially hazardous testing.
other. The difficulty of lowering BP in this group makes Use of agents that can affect BP in a given patient should combination drugs necessary in almost all patients. As with be suspected in the following situations: (1) loss of control of other renal diseases, serum creatinine and potassium should previously well-controlled hypertension, (2) presence of co- be monitored 1 to 2 weeks following initiation or escalation morbidities (particularly osteoarthritis), (3) biochemical evi- in therapy with ACEIs or ARBs. A greater than 1 mg/dL dence of intercurrent drug usage (such as an increase in serum increase in serum creatinine should raise the question of renal potassium or creatinine concentrations with nonsteroidal artery stenosis.
anti-inflammatory drugs), and (4) atypical hypertension (suchas severe but transient hypertension in a young patient Patients with Renovascular Disease
presenting with chest pain and ECG changes accompanying Hemodynamically significant renal artery stenosis may be possible cocaine usage).
associated with all stages of hypertension, but it is more Table 24 provides a list of those agents that may alter BP.
commonly recognized in patients with stage 2 or resistant They may affect BP in several ways. They may affect sodium hypertension, since these are the individuals in whom special balance; increase adrenergic or suppress parasympathetic evaluation for the problem is carried out. If present bilater- neural activity; alter the production, release, or effectiveness Chobanian et al
JNC 7 – COMPLETE REPORT
TABLE 24.
Common Substances Associated With Hypertension
tensive subjects.10 The use of ambulatory BP monitoring has in Humans
highlighted the biphasic effects of alcohol on BP, underscor-ing the importance of the timing of BP measurement. A large Prescription Drugs intake of alcohol (⬎30 g) may lower BP in the first 4 hours Cortisone and other steroids (both cortico- and mineralo-), ACTH
after ingestion. Approximately 10 to 15 hours later (perhaps Estrogens (usually just oral contraceptive agents with high estrogenic
at the time a patient is seen for an office visit or in the emergency room during withdrawal), BP increase may be Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
noted. This accounts for some of the discrepancies reported in Phenylpropanolamines and analogues
the literature about alcohol's effect on BP. The mechanism(s) Cyclosporine and tacrolimus
of alcohol's effect on BP are unclear but appear to result predominantly from sympathetic neural activation, although changes in cortisol and cellular calcium concentrations alsomay play a role.
NANSAIDs represent one of the most common medication classes consumed by hypertensive patients. Among the NAN- Antidepressants (especially venlafaxine) SAIDs, older agents like indomethacin are the most exten- sively studied. BP responses vary within the class of theNANSAIDs; however, increases in pressure are often accom- Clonidine, BB combination panied by peripheral edema and weight gain, supporting a Pheochromocytoma: BB without ␣-blocker first; glucagon salt-retention mechanism of hypertension associated with the loss of natriuretic prostaglandins such as PGE2.368,369 Reduc- Street drugs and other "natural products" tion in the well-described vasodilatory effects of some pros- Cocaine and cocaine withdrawal
taglandins is another mechanism. COX-2 inhibitors also may Ma huang, "herbal ecstasy," and other phenylpropanolamine
cause elevation in BP.370–372 Recently, a double-blind ran- domized trial was conducted evaluating the effects of cele- Nicotine and withdrawal coxib, rofecoxib, and naproxen on 24-hour BP in type 2 Anabolic steroids diabetic patients with osteoarthritis whose hypertension was Narcotic withdrawal treated with ACEIs or ARBs. At equally efficacious doses forthe management of osteoarthritis, treatment with rofecoxib, but not celecoxib or naproxen, induced a significant increase in average 24-hour SBP in type 2 diabetic patients receiving ACEIs or angiotensin II receptor blockers.373 Thus, current Ergotamine and other ergot-containing herbal preparations data suggest that certain NSAIDs and COX 2 inhibitors may have destabilizing effects on BP control in diabetic hyperten- sive patients. This is a major concern, as diabetic patients are often older and obese, and both obesity and aging predisposeto osteoarthritis as well as diabetes.
Improving Hypertension Control
Tyramine-containing foods (with MAO-I) Issues Dealing with Adherence to Regimens
Chemical elements and other industrial chemicals Behavioral models suggest that the most effective therapy prescribed by the most careful clinician will control hyper- tension only if the patient is motivated to take the medication Thallium and other heavy metals as directed and to establish and maintain a health-promoting Lithium salts, especially the chloride lifestyle. Motivation improves when patients have positive Boldfaced items within the list represent the substances of more current TABLE 25.
Provide Empathetic Reinforcement
Adopt an attitude of concern coupled with hope and interest in the patient's of vasoactive hormones; or exert direct effects on the endo- thelium or vascular smooth muscle.
Provide positive feedback for BP and behavioral improvement If BP is not at goal, ask about behaviors to achieve BP control Alcohol
Modest consumption of alcohol (eg, ⬍30 g of ethanol a day
Hold exit interviews to clarify regimen. A patient may tell you that theyunderstand but tell the exit interviewer that they do not.
or approximately two drinks daily) is not generally associatedwith BP increases. Larger amounts of alcohol ingestion have Schedule more frequent appointments and health care personnel contactwith patients who are not achieving goal BP a dose-related effect on BP, both in hypertensive and normo- TABLE 26.
Clinician Awareness and Monitoring
TABLE 28.
Patient Education About Treatment
Anticipate adherence problems for young men Assess patient's understanding and acceptance of the diagnosis of Consider nonadherence as a cause of Failure to reach goal BP Discuss patient's concerns and clarify misunderstandings Resistant hypertension Tell patient the BP reading and provide a written copy Sudden loss of control Come to agreement with the patient on goal BP Encourage patients to bring in all medications from all physicians and other Ask patient to rate (1 to 10) his or her chance of staying on treatment sources, whether prescription, complementary, or over-the-counter, to each Inform patient about recommended treatment and provide specific written visit for review and to rule out iatrogenic causes of elevated blood pressure information about the role of lifestyle including diet, physical activity, dietary Ask what the patient takes for pain supplements, and alcohol intake. Use standard brochures when available.
Recognize depression and other psychiatric illnesses, including panic Elicit concerns and questions and provide opportunities for the patient to attacks, and manage appropriately state specific behaviors to carry out treatment recommendations Be willing to change unsuccessful regimens and search for those more likely to succeed Need to continue treatment Control does not mean cure One cannot tell if BP is elevated by feeling or symptoms; BP must be experiences with, and trust in, their clinicians. Better com- munication improves outcomes. Empathy builds trust and is apotent motivator (Table 25).374 care managers, outside auditors) can be very effective in not What Can the Clinician Do?
only helping to achieve BP goals but to alert clinicians to Clinician-patient partnerships that are based on trust, respect, missed patient appointments, necessary prescription refills, and a holistic knowledge of the patient correlate with positive and laboratory abnormalities.377 outcomes of care: adherence, satisfaction, and improved Patient-centered behavioral interventions such as counsel- health status. Patients often evaluate a clinician's competence ing improve BP control (Table 28).378 Nurse clinicians and by their customer service skills, not their clinical skills.375 pharmacists have proven their effectiveness in helping to Customer service includes ease of access, minimal waiting achieve goal BP.379 Commercial health plans may provide time, and a positive regard from the office staff; all are known resources for chart auditing or other assistance to improve BP to influence provider satisfaction and patient adherence.
control.380 Clinicians should periodically audit their own Clinicians are the role model and should train staff by patient files to assess their degree of compliance and success providing a positive, interactive, empathetic environment.
with established goals and treatment interventions.
This will increase patient comfort and willingness to partic- The National Committee for Quality Assurance (NCQA) ipate in their own care.
has established the Health Plan Employer Data and Informa-tion Set (HEDIS), a set of standardized performance mea- Clinical Inertia
There is a broad range of clinician commitment to optimal
sures designed to ensure that purchasers and consumers have hypertension therapy (Table 26). Failure to titrate or combine the information they need to reliably assess quality of health medications and to reinforce lifestyle modifications despite knowing that the patient is not at goal BP represents clinical of HEDIS guidelines by managed care organizations has inertia that must be overcome. This may be due in part to successfully increased the appropriate use of ACEIs in HF clinician focus on relieving symptoms, a lack of familiarity and BBs in patients who have suffered a myocardial infarc- with clinical guidelines, or discomfort in titrating to a goal.376 tion. NCQA now monitors physician records for the percent A number of approaches are available to overcome clinical of patients whose BP is less than 140/90 mm Hg.381 BP inertia. One of the most effective is to use decision support control rates by physicians so monitored have increased to as systems that prompt the clinician to advance therapy when a high as 59%. Patients should be told their BP on each visit goal has not been achieved (Table 27). Such systems can be and be encouraged not only to ask for those numbers but to electronic (computer- or PDA-based) or paper-based (flow inquire as to why BP is above the goal, if that is the case.
charts, algorithms, guidelines). Feedback reminders from any They also should be given a written record to keep as their source (computer-based, automated telephone-based, nurse part of this commitment.
Role of Other Healthcare Professionals
TABLE 27.
Organize Care Delivery Systems
Clinicians must work with other healthcare professionals (eg,nurse case managers and other nurses, physician assistants, Schedule next appointment before patient leaves office pharmacists, dentists, registered dietitians, licensed nutrition- Use appointment reminders, preferably computer-based, and contactpatients to confirm appointments TABLE 29.
Collaborate With Other Health Professionals
Follow up patients who missed appointments Use an office-based systems approach for monitoring and follow-up (eg, Use complimentary skills and knowledge of nurses, physician assistants, educate staff to provide patient encouragement, computer or chart pharmacists, registered dietitians, optometrists, dentists, and podiatrists reminders, disease management aids) Refer selected patients for more intensive counseling Chobanian et al
JNC 7 – COMPLETE REPORT
TABLE 30.
Individualize the Regimen
TABLE 31.
Promote Social Support Systems
Include patient in decision-making With full permission of the patient, involve caring family members or other Simplify the regimen to once-daily dosing, if possible social support (ie, faith-based or community organizations) in the treatmentprocess Incorporate treatment into patient's daily lifestyle; eg, take medications justbefore or after brushing teeth Suggest common interest group activities (eg, a walking group) to enhancemutual support and motivation Agree with the patient on realistic short-term objectives for specificcomponents of the medication and lifestyle modification plan Encourage discussion of diet and physical activity second group (16%) tended to rely on medication rather thanlifestyle to control their BP. The third group (22%) had the Encourage discussion of adverse drug effects and concerns highest BMI, did not practice health-promoting lifestyle Encourage self-monitoring with validated BP devices except for low rates of alcohol consumption and tobacco Minimize the cost of therapy. Recognize financial issues and enlist local abuse, often forgot to take their medication, and had a lower community and national programs to assist in affording medications.
BP control rate. These patients may benefit most from clinical Indicate that adherence to the regimen will be a subject of discussion at counseling and help in achieving lifestyle modifications and will likely require more frequent office visits or contact with Encourage gradual sustained weight loss nurses or other providers. The last group (23%) was morelikely to be male and young, knew less about hypertension, ists, nutrition educators, optometrists, and podiatrists) to was least afraid of consequences of hypertension or failure to influence or reinforce instructions to improve patient life- take their medication, and was most likely to consume styles and BP control (Table 29). Nurse-managed hyperten- alcohol, abuse tobacco, and stop medication without inform- sion clinics, worksite Occupational Health departments, man- ing their physician. They probably require persistent rein- aged care organizations, pharmacists, and lay community forcement, information on the hazards of lack of BP control, workers have all contributed to better hypertension control.
and small incremental goal-setting by allied health care Public health nurses and community outreach workers in personnel. Involvement of family members or other social high-risk communities also are helpful through their efforts to supports also may be useful (Table 31).
screen, identify cases, refer and track follow-up appoint- Goal Setting and Behavioral Change
ments, and educate patients. All health care professionals The clinician and patient must agree on BP goals and must be committed to enhancing BP control through reinforc- estimated time to reach them, and those goals should be ing messages about the risks of hypertension, the importance clearly recorded in the chart. With the support of the clinician, of managing both SBP and DBP and achieving goal BP, the patient must be empowered with the understanding that education about effective lifestyle interventions, pharmaco- making behavioral changes is ultimately his or her responsi- logical therapies, and adherence to treatment.
bility. As people make behavior change, they progress through a series of stages (precontemplation, contemplation, Patient attitudes are greatly influenced by cultural differ- preparation, action, and maintenance). Behavior change is ences, beliefs, and previous experiences with the health more successfully facilitated using this approach along with system.382 These attitudes must be understood and respected motivational interviewing rather than assigning the same if the clinician is to build trust and increase communication intervention to every patient.384,385 with patients and families (Table 30). Clinicians should Patients can be asked, using a 1 to 10 ranking, how likely explain to patients that the terms "hypertension" and "high they are to follow the plan. If not likely, the clinician can use BP" are used interchangeably and that neither indicates an motivational interviewing to identify the barriers to adher- anxiety state. In addition to motivation, patients need specific ence. At visits where BP is above goal, alterations in the education designed to help them modify their lifestyle and to treatment plan should be made and documented accordingly.
take medications as prescribed to feel better and to reduce Home BP devices can be very useful in involving many patients in their own care. Devices must be calibrated by theclinician (see the section Self Measurement). This should be Characterization of Patients Leading to Tailored Therapy
done, in part, by having the patient determine their BP with There is a broad range of patient involvement in, and the device in the presence of the clinician. Home-determined commitment to, hypertension therapy. Management strategies BP tends to be approximately 5 mm Hg lower than office BP, need to be focused on the patient's goals when providing and this information should be considered when assessing advice and encouraging adherence. Optimal management progress toward goal. But office BP should still be used to strategies are likely to differ for patient types. Healthy determine that a patient is at goal.
lifestyles influence adherence to medication as well as pa- Patient satisfaction with their health care providers predicts tient's beliefs and involvement with behaviors including compliance with treatment. All clinicians need to provide food, beverages, physical activity, healthy weight, salt and positive, patient-centered care to satisfy and enable their alcohol consumption, and smoking. A cluster analysis of 727 patients to follow treatment. Some patient-centered behav- hypertensive patients found that the individuals fell into 4 ioral interventions, like counseling, have been shown to categories.383 The largest group (39%) was health-oriented, improve BP control, while the evidence for structured train- informed about hypertension, and took their medication. A ing or self-monitoring is less clear.
Center, Chicago, Ill); Henry R. Black, MD (Rush University Medical The cost of medications may be a barrier to effective Center, Chicago, Ill); Vicki Burt, ScM, RN (National Center for treatment. Patients often perceive that lifestyle modifications Health Statistics, Hyattsville, Md); Barry L. Carter, PharmD, FCCP(University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa); Francis D. Chesley, Jr., MD such as following the DASH eating plan are expensive, but (Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, Rockville, Md); following these plans can be accomplished even on modest Jerome D. Cohen, MD (Saint Louis University School of Medicine, budgets. Nutrition educators offer classes in schools, com- St. Louis, Mo); Pamela J. Colman, DPM (American Podiatric munities, and worksites on food budgeting and meal plan- Medical Association, Bethesda, Md); William C. Cushman, MD ning. Clinicians should refer their patients to these classes.
(Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Memphis, Tenn); Mark J.
Medical nutrition therapy by registered dietitians improves Cziraky, PharmD, FAHA (Health Core, Inc., Newark, Del); John J.
Davis, PAC (American Academy of Physician Assistants, Memphis, the health of patients who have high cholesterol, diabetes, Tenn); Keith Copelin Ferdinand, MD, FACC (Heartbeats Life obesity, or other chronic disease risk factors.386 Patients Center, New Orleans, La); Ray W. Gifford, Jr., MD, MS (Cleveland should be advised that most lifestyle modifications may be Clinic Foundation, Fountain Hills, Ariz); Michael Glick, DMD (New cost-free or may even save money (eg, smoking cessation and Jersey Dental School, Newark, NJ); Lee A. Green, MD, MPH reduction of alcohol consumption). Further, the beneficial (University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich); Stephen Havas, MD, effects of lifestyle modification may include reduction in the MPH, MS (University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore,Md); Thomas H. Hostetter, MD (National Institutes of Diabetes and amount and cost of prescribed medications and the cost of Digestive and Kidney Diseases, Bethesda, Md); Joseph L. Izzo, Jr., insurance. A patient adhering to the DASH eating plan may MD (State University of New York at Buffalo School of Medicine, require less medication and save money. Patients need to Buffalo, NY); Daniel W. Jones, MD (University of Mississippi understand the important difference between the price of a Medical Center, Jackson, Miss); Lynn Kirby, RN, NP, COHN medication and the cost of nonadherence. The price of (Sanofi-Synthelabo Research, Malvern, Pa); Kathryn M. Kolasa,PhD, RD, LDN (Brody School of Medicine at East Carolina medication is the amount of money needed for purchase, and University, Greenville, NC); Stuart Linas, MD (University of Colo- the cost is the outcome or consequences of not adhering to rado Health Sciences Center, Denver, Colo); William M. Manger, this treatment advice, which may include impaired quality of MD, PhD (New York University Medical Center, New York, NY); life, CVD, kidney failure, stroke, and even premature death.
Edwin C. Marshall, OD, MS, MPH (Indiana University School of The identification of persons who can assist the patient with Optometry, Bloomington, Ind); Barry J. Materson, MD, MBA insurance concerns and social services may be important to (University of Miami, Miami, Fla); Jay Merchant, MHA (Centers forMedicare & Medicaid Services, Washington, DC); Nancy Houston overall adherence. Most pharmaceutical companies have Miller, RN, BSN (Stanford University School of Medicine, Palo special needs programs that are often handled through their Alto, Calif); Marvin Moser, MD (Yale University School of Medi- cine, Scarsdale, NY); William A. Nickey, DO (Philadelphia Collegeof Osteopathic Medicine, Philadelphia, Pa); Suzanne Oparil, MD Additional Sources of Information
(University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Ala); Otelio S.
Additional information is available at the NHLBI web site: Randall, MD, FACC (Howard University Hospital, Washington, DC); James W. Reed, MD, FACP, FACE (Morehouse School ofMedicine, Atlanta, Ga); Edward J. Roccella, PhD, MPH (National Scheme Used for Classification of
Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, Bethesda, Md); Lee Shaughnessy(National Stroke Association, Englewood, Colo); Sheldon G. Sheps, the Evidence
MD (Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minn); David B. Snyder, RPh, DDS The studies that provided evidence supporting the recom- (Health Resources and Services Administration, Rockville, Md); mendations of this report were classified and reviewed by the James R. Sowers, MD, FACP, FACE (SUNY Health Science Center staff and the executive committee. The classification scheme at Brooklyn, Brooklyn, NY); Leonard M. Steiner, MS, OD (Eye is from the JNC 6 report and other NHBPEP Working Group Group, Oakhurst, NJ); Ronald Stout, MD, MPH (Procter andGamble, Mason, Ohio); Rita D. Strickland, EdD, RN (New York Institute of Technology, Springfield Gardens, NY); Carlos Vallbona, These symbols are appended to the citations in the refer- MD (Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX); Howard S. Weiss, MD, MPH (Georgetown University Medical Center, Washington M: Meta-analysis; use of statistical methods to combine the Hospital Center, Walter Reed Army Medical Center, Washington, results from clinical trials.
DC); Jack P. Whisnant, MD (Mayo Clinic and Mayo MedicalSchool, Rochester, Minn); Laurie Willshire, MPH, RN (American RA: Randomized controlled trials; also known as experi- Red Cross, Falls Church, Va); Gerald J. Wilson, MA, MBA (Citizens mental studies.
for Public Action on Blood Pressure and Cholesterol, Inc., Potomac, RE: Retrospective analyses; also known as case-control Md); Mary Winston, EdD, RD (American Heart Association, Dallas, Tex); Jackson T. Wright, Jr., MD, PhD (Case Western Reserve F: Prospective study; also known as cohort studies, includ- University, Cleveland, Ohio) ing historical or prospective follow-up studies.
X: Cross-sectional survey; also known as prevalence Additional Contributors
Jan N. Basile, MD, FACP (Veterans Administration Hospital,
Charleston, SC); James I. Cleeman, MD (National Heart, Lung, and PR: Previous review or position statements.
Blood Institute, Bethesda, Md); Darla E. Danford, MPH, DSc C: Clinical interventions (nonrandomized).
(National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, Bethesda, Md); RichardA. Dart, MD, FACP, FCCP, FAHA (Marshfield Clinic, Marshfield, Wis); Karen A. Donato, SM, RD (National Heart, Lung, and BloodInstitute, Bethesda, Md); Mark E. Dunlap, MD (Louis Stokes National High Blood Pressure Education Program
Cleveland VA Medical Center, Cleveland, Ohio); Brent M. Egan, Coordinating Committee Participants
MD (Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC); Claude Lenfant, MD (National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, William J. Elliott, MD, PhD (Rush University Medical Center, Bethesda, Md); George L. Bakris, MD (Rush University Medical Chicago, Ill); Bonita E. Falkner, MD (Thomas Jefferson University, Chobanian et al
JNC 7 – COMPLETE REPORT
Philadelphia, Pa); John M. Flack, MD, MPH (Wayne State Univer- sity School of Medicine, Detroit, Mich); David Lee Gordon, MD 1. Burt VL, Whelton P, Roccella EJ, Brown C, Cutler JA, Higgins M, et al.
(University of Miami School of Medicine, Miami, Fla); Philip B.
Prevalence of hypertension in the US adult population. Results from the Gorelik, MD, MPH, FACP (Rush Medical College, Chicago, Ill); Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1988 –1991.
Mary M. Hand, MSPH, RN (National Heart, Lung, and Blood Hypertension. 1995;25:305–313. X Institute, Bethesda, Md); Linda A. Hershey, MD, PhD (VA WNY 2. Hajjar I, Kotchen TA. Trends in prevalence, awareness, treatment, and Healthcare System, Buffalo, NY); Norman M. Kaplan, MD (Univer- control of hypertension in the United States, 1988 –2000. JAMA. 2003; sity of Texas Southwestern Medical School at Dallas, Dallas, Tex); 290:199 –206. X Daniel Levy, MD (National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, 3. World Health Report 2002: Reducing risks, promoting healthy life.
Geneva, Switzerland:World Health Organization, 2002. http:// Framingham, Mass); James W. Lohr, MD (VA WNY Healthcare System and SUNY Buffalo, Buffalo, NY); Vasilios Papademetriou, 4. JNC 6. National High Blood Pressure Education Program. The sixth MD, FACP, FACC (Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Washington, report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Eval- DC); Thomas G. Pickering, MD, DPhil (Mount Sinai Medical uation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure. Arch Intern Med. 1997; Center, New York, NY); Ileana L. Pin˜a, MD, FACC (University 157:2413–2446. PR Hospitals of Cleveland, Cleveland, Ohio); L. Michael Prisant, MD, 5. Chobanian AV, Bakris GL, Black HR, Cushman WC, Green LA, Izzo FACC, FACP (Medical College of Georgia, Augusta, Ga); Clive JL Jr, et al. The seventh report of the Joint National Committee on Rosendorff, MD, PhD, FRCP (Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Bronx, NY); Virend K. Somers, MD, PhD (Mayo Clinic and Mayo Pressure: the JNC 7 Report. JAMA. 2003;289:2560 –2572. PR Foundation, Rochester, Minn); Ray Townsend, MD (University of 6. U. S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Heart, Lung, Pennsylvania School of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pa); Humberto and Blood Institute. National High Blood Pressure Education Program.
Available at: http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/about/nhbpep/index.htm.
Vidaillet, MD (Marshfield Clinic, Marshfield, Wis); Donald G. Vidt, Accessed November, 2003.
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